APsych History and Approaches, AP Psychology - Research Methods

Psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Goals of Psychology

Describe, Understand, Predict, Control

Social Psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

Cultural Psychology

the study of how cognitive processing varies across different populations

Nature vs. Nurture

deals with the extent to which genetics and the environment each influence behavior

Person vs. Situation

deals with the extent to which events influence and individual's behavior

Stability vs. Change

controversy over whether an individual's traits persist or change throughout life

Diversity vs. Universality

Controversy over whether our understanding of human behavior apply equally to all human beings

John Locke

Argued that the mind is a blank slate (tabula rosa) and affected by the environment

Wilhem Wundt

Considered the father of psychology because he was the first to apply scientific method to psychological research

G. Stanley Hall

Founder of American Psychology, Founded the APA

Consciousness

Awareness of your mental processes

Introspection

the examination or observation of one's own mental and emotional processes

Sigmund Freud

Austrian neurologist known for his work on the unconscious mind. Father of psychoanalysis.

Psychodynamic

Examination of how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts

Ivan Pavlov

Accidentally discovered the Stimulus Response reaction

John B. Watson

founder of behaviorism

Cognitive Psychology

The study of how people think, learn, and remember.

Jean Piaget

Cognitive development researcher

Humanistic Psychology

view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth

Abraham Maslow

Humanist researcher

Applied Psychology

putting psychology directly into practice; ex. psychologist

Research Psychology

Focuses on experimentation

Biological Approach

focuses on the body, especially the brain and nervous system

Evolutionary Approach

A view that emphasizes the inherited, adaptive aspects of behavior and mental processes

Behavioral Approach

the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning

Social-Cultural Approach

how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures

Clinical Psychology

branch of psychology that assess and treats mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders

Counseling

type of psychologists who deal with people who have adjustment problems

Industrial/Organizational Psychology

studies all behavioral aspects in work setting

Human Factors Psychology

explores how people and machines interact

Psychiatry

Branch of medicine that deals with psychological disorders and prescribes medicine

Forensic Psychology

field that blends psychology, law, and criminal justice

Dorothea Dix

A reformer and pioneer in the movement to treat the insane as mentally ill, beginning in the 1820's

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

Scientific Method

Step by step process of discovery

Hypothesis

Clear prediction of the anticipated results of an experiment.

Operational Definition

a working definition of what a researcher is measuring

Experiment

a technique for establishing the causal relationship between variables

Case Study

An in-depth investigation of an individual subject.

Survey

the collection of data by having people answer a series of questions

Naturalistic Observation

watching behavior in real-world settings without trying to manipulate the situation

Longitudinal Study

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

Theory

well-tested explanation that unifies a broad range of observations

Lab Experiment

Conducted in an artificial setting; high internal validity, low external validity

Field Experiment

An experiment conducted in the participants' natural environment

Descriptive Research

research that focuses on describing the behavior and the situation within which it occurs

Correlational Research

used to describe the relationship between two or more naturally occurring variables

Independent Variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Dependent Variable

the variable that is observed and that changes in response to another variable

Hawthorne Effect

A change in a subject's behavior caused simply by the awareness of being studied

Experimental Group

the group in an experiment that receives the variable being tested

Control Group

the group that does not receive the experimental treatment.

Confounding Variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

Random Assignment

a procedure that lets chance assign people to the experimental or control group

Double Blind Procedure

Neither subject nor researcher knows whether subject is in experimental or control group

Placebo

an inert substance given to the control group in an experiment

Placebo Effect

experimental effects that are caused by expectations about the intervention

Wording Effects

distorting the statement to gain a specific answer

Random Sampling

every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected

Stratified Sample

subgroups in the population are represented proportionally in the sample

Mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution

Mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

Median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

Positive Skew

distributions with a longer skinnier right hand tail

Negative Skew

distributions with a longer skinnier left hand tail

Range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

Standard Deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

Bell Curve

visual representation of the normal distribution of the population

1 Standard Deviation on Bell Curve

68%

2 Standard Deviations on Bell Curve

95%

Correlation

A measure of the relationship between two variables

Scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables

Positive Correlation

as one variable increases, the other increases too

Negative Correlation

as one variable increases, the other decreases

Correlation Coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

Illusory Correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists

Validity

the degree to which a test actually measures what it's supposed to measure

Reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results

Test-Retest Reliability

The consistency in results every time a measure is used.

Split-Half Reliability

scores from the first half of the test are comparable with scores from the second half

Inferential Statistics

procedures used to draw conclusions about larger populations from small samples of data

Statistical Significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

Hindsight Bias

the tendency to see outcomes as inevitable and predictable after we know the outcome

Social Desirability Bias

A tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself.

Sampling Bias

Under representation or over representation of portions in a population.

Experimenter Bias

expectation of the person conducting an experiment which may be affect the outcome

Confirmation Bias

a tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions

Informed Consent

agreement to take part in the research, after having been so informed

Debriefing

a verbal description of the true nature and purpose of a study

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.

meta-analysis

a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies