FINAL FINAL FOOD SCIENCE STUDY

Mono- vs. Di- vs. Poly-saccharides:

Monosaccharides are single sugar units (e.g., glucose, fructose); disaccharides have two sugar units (e.g., sucrose = glucose + fructose; lactose = glucose + galactose); polysaccharides have many sugar units (e.g., starch – digestible; cellulose – indigestible fiber)

Distinguish starch vs. cellulose:

Starch is digestible due to alpha bonds; cellulose is indigestible due to beta bonds

Distinguish sucrose vs. lactose:

Sucrose is table sugar (sweet), lactose is milk sugar (less sweet)

Functions of carbohydrates in food (not nutrition):

Sweetening, thickening, water binding (preservation, texture), browning (Maillard reaction, caramelization)

What causes lactose intolerance?

Inability to digest lactose due to lactase enzyme deficiency

Monosaccharide in starch:

Glucose

Definition of lipids:

Nonpolar compounds insoluble in water (e.g., fats, oils, waxes)

Primary form of lipids:

Triglycerides = glycerol + 3 fatty acids

Difference between cholesterol and trans fats:

Cholesterol found in animal products; trans fats result from hydrogenation and increase LDL

What is smoke point?

Temperature at which fat starts to smoke

Functions of lipids in food:

Flavor, texture, appearance, emulsification

Compare saturated vs. unsaturated fats:

Saturated fats are solid at room temp (e.g., butter), unsaturated fats are liquid at room temp (e.g., olive oil)

Basic protein structure:

Made of amino acids (amine + carboxyl group + side chain)

How many essential amino acids and what are they?

9 essential amino acids must come from diet

Difference between complete and incomplete proteins:

Complete proteins contain all 9 essential AAs (e.g., eggs, soy); incomplete proteins lack some AAs (e.g., grains, legumes)

Protein %DV calculation formula:

[(Protein grams x PDCAAS)/50] x 100

Define meat and poultry:

Meat = muscle from livestock; poultry = domesticated birds

Key regulatory agencies for meat and poultry safety:

USDA and FDA

What is collagen?

Connective tissue protein that becomes gelatin when cooked

Slaughter phases:

Pre-handling → Stunning → Slaughter

Effects of stress on meat quality:

Short-term stress causes PSE meat; long-term stress causes DFD meat

Myoglobin states and colors:

Deoxymyoglobin (purple), Oxymyoglobin (red), Metmyoglobin (brown)

What affects meat color?

Myoglobin state and cooking (denaturation)

Ice structure is:

Lattice held by hydrogen bonds

What affects ice crystal size?

Freezing speed (faster freezing = smaller crystals)

Water activity vs. moisture content difference:

Water activity refers to free water available; moisture content is total water present

Boiling point and freezing point of water:

Boiling at 100°C, freezing at 0°C (pure water)

How do solutes affect freezing and boiling points?

Freezing point decreases, boiling point increases with solutes

What are emulsifiers and stabilizers?

Emulsifiers mix immiscible liquids; stabilizers maintain mixture stability

Examples of emulsifiers and stabilizers:

Emulsifiers: lecithin (egg yolk); stabilizers: xanthan gum, carrageenan

Types of emulsions:

Oil-in-water (e.g., mayo), water-in-oil (e.g., butter)

Milk proteins in ice cream:

Casein (micelle form) and whey (liquid phase)

Role of carbohydrates in ice cream:

Add sweetness and control freezing point

Role of milkfat in ice cream:

Enhances creaminess and traps air

Difference in overrun between ice cream and gelato:

Ice cream has high overrun (more air), gelato has lower overrun (denser texture)

Types of browning reactions:

Maillard (amino acids + reducing sugars), caramelization (sugar + heat), enzymatic (phenolics + enzymes)

How to enhance Maillard reaction?

Add protein and sugar, increase heat

How to reduce enzymatic browning?

Use acid, cold temperatures, reduce oxygen exposure

What is acrylamide?

Byproduct of Maillard reaction; potential carcinogen

Definition of UPFs:

Industrial formulations containing additives

NOVA classification groups:

Group 1: Fresh; Group 2: Processed ingredients; Group 3: Processed foods; Group 4: Ultra-processed foods

Define food ingredient:

Component affecting food characteristics

Roles of food ingredients:

Safety (preservatives), nutrition (fortifiers), sensory (flavors, colors)

What does GRAS stand for?

Generally Recognized as Safe

Examples of food additives:

Erythritol, aspartame, antioxidants (vitamin C), antimicrobials (nitrates), sulfites, nitrites

Types of hazards:

Biological (pathogens), chemical (toxins), physical (glass)

Define adulteration and misbranding:

Adulteration = unsafe or poor quality ingredients; misbranding = false labeling

Regulatory agencies for food safety:

FDA for processed food, USDA for meat and poultry

What does FAT TOM stand for?

Food, Acidity, Time, Temperature, Oxygen, Moisture

Common foodborne pathogens and symptoms:

Norovirus (vomiting, diarrhea), Clostridium botulinum (paralysis), E. coli (severe diarrhea), Listeria (dangerous for pregnant women), Salmonella (fever, cramps), Vibrio (raw seafood)

Difference between food allergy and intolerance:

Food allergy involves immune response; intolerance is enzyme deficiency (e.g., lactose intolerance)

What is celiac disease?

Autoimmune reaction to gluten

What is food processing?

Converting raw food into edible form for safety, shelf-life, convenience

Examples of processing methods:

Pasteurization (heat kill microbes), sterilization (higher heat), HPP (high pressure), extrusion (cereal, snacks)

What is MAP in packaging?

Modified atmosphere packaging to preserve freshness

Five senses in food evaluation:

Taste, smell, touch, vision, sound

Five basic tastes:

Sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami

What percent of flavor is smell responsible for?

About 80%

What are trigeminal effects?

Sensations like spicy, cooling, astringent

Why are alternative proteins needed?

To reduce environmental impact of livestock

Advantages of insects as protein source:

High protein, low resource use, rich in antioxidants and amino acids

Other alternative proteins:

Lab-grown meat, algae proteins, precision fermentation (e.g., dairy substitutes)

What is the Humane Slaughter Act?

Law ensuring ethical slaughter practices

Who is Temple Grandin?

Inventor of captive bolt method for humane slaughter

Difference between grain-fed and grass-fed meat:

Nutritional and environmental differences

What are climacteric fruits?

Fruits that continue ripening after harvest (e.g., bananas)

Examples of non-climacteric fruits:

Grapes

Fruit ripening changes:

Texture softens, sugar increases, color changes

Name vitamin groups based on color:

Red (lycopene), orange (carotenoids), green (chlorophyll), blue/purple (anthocyanins), white (anthoxanthins)

Difference between green and black tea:

Green tea is unoxidized with high polyphenols; black tea is oxidized with more robust flavor

Methods to detect food fraud:

Spectroscopy and chromatograph