geography paper 2

what is urbanisation

growth in the proportion of people living in urban areas, around 55% of the world lives in urban areas and this is constantly increasing, the rate of urbanisation differs between richer and poorer countries

HICs

high income countries are more economically developed e.g the UK and Japan, most HICs have already experienced urbanisation so around 80% of the population live in urban areas, many people leave urban areas for less crowded rural areas so the rate of urbanisation is low, usually under 1%

LICs

low income countries are less economically developed e.g Ethiopia and Afghanistan, only around 30% of the population currently live in urban areas but most LICs have high rates of urbanisation, up to 6%

NEEs

newly emerging economies are countries where economic development is increasing rapidly e.g Brazil and China, their urban population is around 50% though for countries experiencing rapid urban growth this figure can be much higher, their rate of urbanisation is typically around 2%

what is rural urbanisation

movement of people from the countryside to cities

how does rural-urban migration cause urbanisation

by a combination of push factors (which encourage people to leave and area) and pull factors (which encourage people to move to an area)

push factors (natural disasters)

natural disasters can damage property and farmland which is costly, rural area can find it harder to recover as they tend to have fewer resources

push factors (agriculture)

mechanised agricultural equipment needs fewer workers so there are fewer jobs

push factors (desertification)

desertification makes land unproductive so people can’t support themselves, farmer’s income is unstable as it depends on good harvest

pull factors (empl*yment)

there are more jobs in urban areas that are often better paid

pull factors (education)

there’s access to better healthcare and educational opportunities

pull factors (family)

other family members might have already moved to an urban area

pull factors (life)

people think they will have a better quality of life

how is urbanisation caused by natural increase (1)

which is when birth rate exceeds death rate, as more people are being born than are dying the population grows

how is urbanisation caused by natural increase (2) (young people)

it’s normally young people that move to cities to find work, these migrants then have children increasing the proportion of the population living in urban areas, access to better healthcare in urban areas also increase life expectancy, preventing the decline of urban populations

what does high rate of urbanisation lead to

high rates of urbanisation leads to the growth of megacities, as of 2018, there are 33 megacities and 27 of them are located in LICs and NEEs, by 2030, the number of megacities is expected to have to increased to 43

population distribution of UK

very uneven, the relief affects where most people live, many on the major cities have developed into conurbations, these areas have the highest population density

conurbations

towns that have merged to form continuous urban areas

population distribution of UK: upland regions

upland regions such as the north of Scotland are sparsely populated - they are difficult to farm and have few natural resources

population distribution of UK: coastal areas

many coastal areas have attracted human settlement - especially where there are sheltered bays and river estuaries suitable for building harbours, key ports e.g Liverpool and Cardiff have grown into major cities

population distribution of UK: mineral wealth

mineral wealth (especially of coal and iron ore) has often led to rapid population growth because this was where industries developed, may of the UK’s cities developed on major coalfields, e.g Newcastle and Leeds

population distribution of UK: lowland areas

most urban areas developed in low land areas e.g Birmingham are easier to build on and the climate is milder than upland areas

population distribution of UK: London

London is the UK’s biggest city- it has around 9 million people, which is about 16% of the UK’s total population, it is the national capital and has many industries

different city zones: CBD

the central business district is usually in the middle of a city, most amenities and services are found here, the CBD is often surrounded by a ring road

different city zones: inner city

the inner city area often has a mix of land uses - mainly residential but with some businesses and recreation parks, lots of short, parallel roads often show areas of terraced housing in the inner city

different city zones: suburbs

the suburbs are found towards the edge of the city, they are mainly residential areas, often with semi detached houses with short curved streets and cul de sacs

different city zones: rural urban fringe

the rural urban fringe is on the edge of the city, it has farmland and open spaces as well as new housing developments and large retail and business parks, a mixture of white space and built up areas show this on a map

sustainable living meaning

living in a way that lets people meet their needs now without reducing the ability of people to meet their needs in the future, doesn’t irreversibly damage the environment or use up resources faster than they can be replaced

why may big cities never be fully sustainable

big cities need so many resources that its unlikely they’ll ever be truly sustainable but things can be done to make a city (and the way people live there) more sustainable

vital resources for cities

water and energy are vital resources in cities, but they’re rarely managed sustainably, conservation schemes can make the use of these resources more sustainable

water conservation schemes

only as much water should be taken from the environment as can be naturally replaced, water conservation schemes reduce the amount of water used

how do water conservation schemes reduce the amount of water used

collecting rainwater foresee on gardens or for flushing toilets, installing toilets that flush less water, installing water meters so that people have to pay for the water that they use, encouraging people to use less water e.g by turning off taps when not in use

water conservation schemes (example) (1)

In Curitiba in Brazil, the government has introduced various policies to promote sustainable water use, including the installation of water meters in homes and hosepipe bans, the city also has separate systems for non drinking water so less drinking water is used

water conservation schemes (example) (2)

these schemes have successfully reduced Curitiba’s water consumption, it is around half that of other Latin American cities

energy conservation schemes

burning fossil fuels to generate power isn’t sustainable as they’ll run out, they also contribute to climate change by producing greenhouse gases, energy conservation schemes reduce the use of fossil fuels

how do energy conservation schemes reduce the use of fossil fuels (1)

promoting renewable energy e.g wind or solar over coal or gas fired power stations and encouraging people to make their homes more energy efficient e.g governments can let homeowners who generate electricity from renewable sources e.g solar panels sell excess energy to the national grid

how do energy conservation schemes reduce the use of fossil fuels (2)

making sure that all new homes meet minimum energy efficiency requirements, encouraging people to reduce car use e.g by using public transport

energy conservation schemes (example) (1)

in 2009, Curitiba renovated its ‘Green Line’ transport system, it now includes dedicated bus lanes for biofuel buses, there is also a scheme to replace all of the city’s street lights with energy efficient bulbs, and the city gets 84% of its energy from renewable hydroelectric power

energy conservation schemes (example) (2)

these schemes have been successful, Curitiba’s CO2 emissions from electricity are about 65% than other Latin American cities

how does creating green spaces also help a city become sustainable

cities can be noisy, dirty, busy and hot - they are unsustainable as people find them unpleasant and stressful, creating green space within urban areas ensures that they remain places where people want to live and work

why does creating green spaces also help a city become sustainable

they provide naturally cooler areas where people can relax in very hot weather, they encourage people to exercise more and to use alternative transport e.g bikes which makes people healthier and less stressed, they make people feel happier by providing a break from the noise and bustle of the city

environmental benefits of creating green spaces in cities

air pollution by creating pockets of clean air, the risk of flooding by reducing surface runoff when it rains

example of how creating green spaces also helps a city to become sustainable (1)

in 2007, Curitiba launched a government scheme that encouraged landowners to preserve green areas limiting urban sprawl, people who created parks were exempt from local and federal taxes

example of how creating green spaces also helps a city to become sustainable (2)

there are now 28 parks in the city including the 1.4 million m² Barigui Park which is designed to absorb flood waters so unsightly flood defences are not needed

waste production is unsustainable in cities

more recycling means fewer resources are used e.g metal cans can be melted down and used to make more cans, less waste is produced which reduces the amount that goes to landfill

why are landfills unsustainable

as it wastes resources that could be recycled, and eventually there’'ll be nowhere left to bury the waste, decomposing landfill also releases greenhouse gases

examples of waste recycling schemes

kerbside collections of recyclable materials, building recycling facilities to deal with larger items e.g fridges and websites e.g Freecycle where items are offered for free so they can be used by others instead of being thrown away

example of waste recycling scheme (1)

Curitiba is one of only eight cities in the world which collects 100% of its waste, of which 70% is recycled, to further encourage recycling the government launched ‘The Green Exchange Programme’ in 1989, residents receive 1kg of food or bus tickets for every 4kg of recyclable waste collected which led to the collection of 6800 tonnes of waste each year

traffic congestion (environmental problems)

lots of traffic increases air pollution and the release of greenhouse gases contributes to climate change

traffic congestion (economic problems)

congestion can make people late for work and delay deliveries causing companies to lose money

traffic congestion (social problems)

there is a higher change of accidents, congestion also causes frustration for drivers, health issues for pedestrians and cyclists who breathe in polluted air and can delay emergency vehicles

using public transport reduces traffic congestion (the Docklands Light Railway)

an automatic train system that connects east London to the city centre, it operates mostly on tracks above street level though parts are underground, it is used y around 120 million people each year

using public transport reduces traffic congestion (London’s Underground System)

takes 3 million people off the roads every day. a new underground line, Crossrail, is being built from east to west across the city, it will increase rail capacity in central London by 10% when its completed

using public transport reduces traffic congestion (self service bikes)

available to hire, and are cheaper than other forms of public transport, bike lanes and special bike signals at junctions can improve cyclist safety

using public transport reduces traffic congestion (oyster cards)

electronic ‘Oyster Cards’ allow people to travel on most of London’s public transport networks without buying separate tickets, they can be automatically topped and are swiped on entry and exit from stations and buses, making them quick and easy to use

how can traffic congestion be reduced through managing the flow of traffic in the city (ring roads)

ring roads and pedestrianised shopping streets keep traffic away from the city centre, making it safer and less polluted and preventing congestion on narrow city centre roads

how can traffic congestion be reduced through managing the flow of traffic in the city (bus priority lanes)

bus priority lanes stop buses being held in traffic, making them more attractive than driving

how can traffic congestion be reduced through managing the flow of traffic in the city (parking restriction)

parking restrictions make sure parked cars don’t block traffic flow on narrow roads, ‘urban clearways’ are major roads along which stopping or parking is very limited

how can traffic congestion be reduced through managing the flow of traffic in the city (congestion charging)

congestion charging discourages drivers from entering the city centre at peak times, a scheme in Durham cut the number of cars entering the historic city centre by 85%

how can traffic congestion be reduced through managing the flow of traffic in the city (example) (1)

Curitiba’s Bus Rapid Transit system uses a series of dedicated bus lanes to ensure that bus journeys are quick, over 700,000 passengers use the buses each day and Curitiba’s carbon emissions are 25% lower per capita than the average Brazilian city

how can traffic congestion be reduced through managing the flow of traffic in the city (example) (2)

the city centre’s main shopping area is also pedestrianised, further encouraging people to leave their cars at home

what is development

progress in economic growth, use of technology and improving welfare that a country has made, when a country develops it basically gets for the people living there - their quality of life improves e.g wealth, health and saefty

how is the level of development different in different countries

e.g France is more developed than Ethiopia, the difference in development between more and less developed countries is called the global development gap

measures of development

some measures look at a country’s level of economic development while others look at social factors that provide information about people’s quality of life

measures of development (GNI)

gross national income is the total value of goods and services provided by a country in a year, including income from overseas, its often given in USD, measure of wealth, as a country develops it gets higher

measures of development (GNI per head)

the GNI divided by the population of a country, it’s also given in USD and is sometimes called the GNI per capita, measure of wealth, as a country develops it gets higher

measures of development (birth rate)

the number of live births per thousand of the population per year, a measure of education, as a country develops it gets lower

measures of development (death rate)

the number of deaths per thousand of the population per year, a measure of health, as a country develops it gets lower

measures of development (infant mortality rate)

the number of babies who die before they are 1 year old, per thousand babies born, a measure of wealth, as a country develops it gets lower

measure of development (people per doctor)

the average number of people for each doctor, a measure of health, as a country develops it gets lower

measure of development (literacy rate)

the percentage of adults who can read and write, a measure of education, as a country develops it gets higher

measure of development (access to safe water)

the percentage of people who can get clean drinking water, a measure of health, as a country develops it gets higher

measures of development (life expectancy)

the average age a person can expect to live to, a measure of health, as a country develops it gets higher

how can GNI per head be misleading

GNI per head can be misleading when used on its own as it is an average, variations within the country don’t show up e.g the GNI per person in Qatar is as high as some HICs but Qatar actually has a small number of extremely wealthy people and a lot of relatively poor people

how can social indicators be misleading

social indicators can also be misleading if they are used on their own as a country develops, some aspects develop before others so it might seem like a country is more developed than it actually is e.g Cuba has a low birth rate which suggests that it is more developed but a relatively high death rate suggesting it is less developed

what is the most common way to look at a country’s level of development

wealth

measuring development (HICs)

HICs are the wealthiest countries in the world, where the GNI per head is high e.g UK, USA, Canada, France

measuring development (LICs)

LICs are the poorest countries in the world where the GNI per head is very low e.g Afghanistan, Somalia and Uganda

measuring development (NEEs)

a country’s wealth doesn’t stay the same, some NEEs are rapidly getting richer as their country moved from being based on primary industry to secondary industry e.g Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa and Mexico, Indonesia, Nigeria and Turkey

how can we avoid some of the problems of using individual measures

using the human development index

how is HDI calculated

calculated using income (GNI per head), life expectancy and education level e.g average number of years of schooling, every country has an HDI value between 0 (least developed) and 1 (most developed)

benefit of the combination of measures in HDI

the combination of measures means that a country’s HDI value tells you about both the country’s level of economic development and the quality of life for people who live there

classification of countries by HDI

the classification of countries by HDI mostly looks similar to GNI per head, but there are some differences e.g Nigeria is an NEE but according to its wealth it has a low HDI

DTM

demographic transition model shows how birth rates and death rates affect population growth, when the birth rate is higher than the death rate the population grows (natural increase), birth rates and death rates differ from country to country depending on the level of development and can change within a country overtime as it develops

DTM: stage 1

stage 1 is the least developed, very few places are at stage 1 now, the birth rate is high as there is no use of contraception. people also have lots of children due to high infant mortality rates, the death rate is high due to poor healthcare or famine and life expectancy is low

DTM: stage 2

stage 2 is not very developed, many LICs are in stage 2, the birth rate is high, the economy is agriculture-based, so people have lots of children to work on farms, better healthcare increases life expectancy so death rates fall

DTM: stage 3

stage 3 is more developed, most NEEs are at stage 3, the birth rate falls rapidly as contraception use increases and more women work instead of having children, the economy changes from farming to manufacturing so fewer children are needed to work on farms, improved healthcare means the death rate falls and life expectancy increases

DTM: stage 4 and 5

stages 4 and 5 are the most developed, most HICs are at one of these stages, birth rates are low, people expect a high standard of living and may have dependant elderly relatives so there’s less money available for having children, healthcare is good so the death rate is low and life expectancy is high

physical factors that can affect how developed a country is: poor climate (1)

some countries have a really hot, really cold or really dry climate where not much will grow, this means not much food can be produced which can lead to malnutrition e.g in Chad and Ethiopia, people who are malnourished have a low quality of life

physical factors that can affect how developed a country is: poor climate (2)

people also have fewer crops to sell so they have less money to spend on goods and services, as less money is sold and bought, the government gets less money from taxes, this means there’s less money to spend on developing the country e.g by improving healthcare and education

physical factors that can affect how developed a country is: poor farming land

if the land in a country is steep or has poor soil (or no soil), then it will be difficult to grow crops or graze animals to produce food, this can have the same effects as a poor climate

physical factors that can affect how developed a country is: few raw materials (1)

countries without many raw materials like coal, oil or metal ores have fewer products to export to other countries, which means they tend to make less money and so aren’t able to spend as much on development projects

physical factors that can affect how developed a country is: few raw materials (2)

some developing countries have a lot of raw materials but can’t afford to develop the infrastructure needed to exploit them e.g roads and ports

physical factors that can affect how developed a country is: lots of natural disasters

countries that have a lot of natural disasters e.g Bangladesh, which often has floods, have to spend a lot of money rebuilding after disasters occur, natural disasters reduce the quality of life of the people affect and reduce the amount of money the government has to spend on development projects

what is trade

exchange of goods and services between countries

economic factors that can affect how developed a country is: poor trade links

world trade patterns influence a country’s economy and so affect its level of development, if a country has poor trade links it won’t make a lot of money so there’ll be less to spend on development

economic factors that can affect how developed a country is: lots of debt

very poor countries borrow money from other countries and international organisations e.g to help cope with the aftermath of a natural disaster, this money has to be paid back, sometimes with interest so there’s less for development

economic factors that can affect how developed a country is: economy based on primary products (1)

countries that mostly export primary products (raw materials like timber and metal) tend to be less developed than countries that export manufactured goods as primary products are sold for less profit than manufactured goods

economic factors that can affect how developed a country is: economy based on primary products (2)

the price of primary products also fluctuate - sometimes the price falls below the cost of production e.g in 2018 the price of cocoa dropped below the cost of production in Ghana and many farmers had to rely on subsidies from the government, HICs can also force down the prices of raw materials they buy from poorer countries

historical factors that can affect how developed a country is: colonisation (1)

countries that were colonised are often at a lower development level when they gain independence than they would be if they hadn’t been colonised