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What kingdom are animals in? What characteristics make an animal an animal?

Kingdom Animalia.

They are multicellular, eukaryotic, heterotrophic organisms lacking cell walls, with cells organized into tissues (in most), capable of movement at some life stage, and undergoing a developmental blastula stage.

What is the difference between a vertebrate and an invertebrate? What are most animals?

Vertebrates possess a dorsal, hollow nerve cord and vertebral column; invertebrates lack these. Most animal species (>95%) are invertebrates.

What are tissues?

Groups of similar cells working together to perform a function (e.g., muscle, nervous, epithelial, connective tissues).

What is symmetry? What are the differences between radial, bilateral, and asymmetry?

The arrangement of body parts around an axis.

Multiple planes produce mirror images (e.g., jellyfish).

Single plane divides into left/right halves (e.g., worms, humans).

No symmetry (e.g., sponges).

What is a body cavity? What function does it serve?

A fluid‐filled space between digestive tract and body wall (coelom). It allows organ suspension, growth, and independent movement of gut.

What characteristics do sponges have? What phylum? How do they feed? What are ostia and choanocytes? What's the osculum? What symmetry? Tissues? Body cavity? What type of larva?

Phylum Porifera.

Sessile filter feeders—draw water through ostia (pores) into spongocoel; choanocytes trap particles. Water exits via osculum. Asymmetrical; lack true tissues and coelom. Larva = free-swimming amphiblastula or parenchymula.

What is filter feeding, suspension feeding, and passive suspension feeding? What is deposit feeding?

Actively straining particles from water.

Capturing particles suspended in water (can be passive if currents do the work).

Ingesting sediment and extracting organic matter.

What are spongin, spicules, amoebocytes? What organisms have these?

Spongin = collagenous fibers; spicules = CaCO₃ or SiO₂ structural elements; amoebocytes = mobile cells for nutrient transport and spicule production. All in Porifera.

How can sponges reproduce? What is broadcast spawning? What's a hermaphrodite?

Asexually by budding/gemmules or sexually by gamete release. Broadcast spawning = releasing eggs and sperm into water. Hermaphrodite = individual produces both eggs and sperm.

What organisms can be found in phylum Cnidaria? What are the characteristics of cnidarians and the various classes of Cnidarians? Symmetry? Tissues? Body cavity?

Includes jellyfish, corals, sea anemones, hydroids. Radial symmetry; diploblastic (ectoderm + endoderm) with mesoglea; gastrovascular cavity.

What's mesoglea? What are the 2 body forms found in Cnidarians? What's a cnidocyte and nematocyst? How do cnidarians feed? How can cnidarians reproduce? What type of larva? What kind of nervous system?

Mesoglea = gelatinous layer. Polyp (sessile) & medusa (free‑swimming). Cnidocyte = stinging cell; nematocyst = capsule with barbed thread. Feed by sting‐and‑ingest. Reproduce both sexually (medusa gametes) and asexually (polyps budding). Larva = planula. Diffuse nerve net.

What are the different classes of phylum Cnidaria and what organisms are found in each class? Which body forms are dominant in each class?

Hydrozoa (hydroids, Portuguese man‑o‑war; polyp & medusa both common), Scyphozoa (true jellyfish; medusa dominant), Cubozoa (box jellies; medusa), Anthozoa (sea anemones & corals; polyp only).

What are Siphonophores and Gorgonians? What is an example of an organism in those groups?

Siphonophores = floating colonial polyps (e.g., Portuguese man‑o‑war). Gorgonians = colonial, branching "sea fans" (e.g., Gorgonia ventalina).

What are the characteristics of the comb jellies? What phylum are the comb jellies in? What are ctenes? Symmetry? Tissues? Body cavity? Nervous system? What are colloblasts?

Phylum Ctenophora. Eight rows of ciliary plates (ctenes) for locomotion; biradial symmetry; diploblastic with mesoglea; nerve net + statocyst; colloblasts = sticky prey‑capture cells.

What does anterior/posterior/dorsal/ventral mean?

Anterior = head/front; posterior = tail/back; dorsal = back surface; ventral = belly surface.

What are the characteristics of the flatworms? What phylum are the flatworms in? Symmetry? Tissues? Body cavity? What's the most common type of flatworm in marine habitats? What are flukes and tapeworms examples of?

Phylum Platyhelminthes. Bilateral symmetry; triploblastic; acoelomate; marine turbellarians are common free‑living flatworms. Flukes & tapeworms = parasitic classes Trematoda & Cestoda.

What are the characteristics of the ribbon worms? What phylum are the ribbon worms in? Symmetry? Tissues? Body cavity? What's their distinctive feature and what is it used for?

Phylum Nemertea. Bilateral; triploblastic; coelomate or acoelomate; distinctive eversible proboscis in a rhynchocoel used to capture prey.

What are the characteristics of the round worms? What phylum are the round worms in? Symmetry? Tissues? Body cavity?

Phylum Nematoda. Bilateral; triploblastic; pseudocoelomate; unsegmented, tapered. Many parasitic and free‑living.

What are the characteristics of the arrow worms? What phylum are the arrow worms in? Symmetry? Tissues? Body cavity?

Phylum Chaetognatha. Bilateral; triploblastic; coelomate; transparent, torpedo‑shaped marine predators with grasping spines.

What are the characteristics of the segmented worms? What phylum are the segmented worms in? Symmetry? Tissues? Body cavity? What class are most marine Annelids found in? What larva?

Phylum Annelida. Bilateral; triploblastic; coelomate; metameric segmentation. Most marine in Polychaeta; trochophore larva.

What are the characteristics of the beard worms and Vestimentiferans? What phylum and class are they in? Symmetry? Tissues? Body cavity?

Phylum Annelida, Class Polychaeta (Siboglinidae). Lack digestive tract; bilateral; triploblastic; coelomate; live in tubes; obtain nutrients via symbiotic bacteria.

What are the characteristics of the Echiurans? What phylum are the Echiurans in? Symmetry? Tissues? Body cavity? What do they feed with?

Phylum Echiura (subgroup of Annelida). Bilateral; triploblastic; coelomate; unsegmented "spoon worms" feeding by mucus‑coated proboscis.

What are the characteristics of the peanut worms? What phylum are the peanut worms in? Symmetry? Tissues? Body cavity?

Phylum Sipuncula. Bilateral; triploblastic; coelomate; retractable introvert; deposit feeders.

What are the characteristics of the molluscs? What phylum are the molluscs in? Symmetry? Tissues? Body cavity? What are the 3 body parts found in all molluscs and what is their function? What's a radula used for?

Phylum Mollusca. Bilateral; triploblastic; coelomate. Body parts: mantle (shell secretion & respiration), visceral mass (organs), foot (locomotion). Radula = rasping feeding organ.

What are the 6 major classes of molluscs and what are the characteristics of each class? What kinds of organisms can be found in each class? Which class has the most species?

Gastropoda (snails, slugs; torsion); Bivalvia (clams, oysters; two shells, filter feeders); Cephalopoda (octopus, squid; foot→arms & siphon); Polyplacophora (chitons; eight plates); Scaphopoda (tusk shells; burrowers); Aplacophora (worm‑like). Gastropoda is largest.

What are the umbo, adductor muscles, and byssal threads? What class/phylum possess these structures?

Umbo = oldest shell part; adductor muscles close shells; byssal threads attach to substrate. Found in Bivalvia (Mollusca).

What has the foot evolved into in Cephalopods? What invertebrates have the most complex nervous system?

Foot → tentacles/arms & funnel (siphon). Cephalopods have the most complex invertebrate nervous systems.

What are the characteristics of the arthropods? What phylum are the arthropods in? Symmetry? Tissues? Body cavity? What phylum has the most species?

Phylum Arthropoda. Bilateral; triploblastic; coelomate; segmented with jointed appendages & exoskeleton. Arthropoda has the most species of any phylum.

What are the different classes of arthropods and what are the characteristics of each class? What kinds of organisms can be found in each class? What are some Orders found in Class Crustacea and what organisms can be found in those Orders?

Classes: Chelicerata (spiders, horseshoe crabs), Myriapoda (centipedes, millipedes), Crustacea (crabs, shrimps, barnacles), Hexapoda (insects). Crustacean orders include Decapoda (crabs, lobsters), Isopoda (pillbugs), Amphipoda (sand hoppers), Cirripedia (barnacles).

What are the types of larvae found in crustaceans?

Nauplius, zoea, mysis, megalopa (in decapods).

What are the three lophophorate phyla? What's a lophophore? Symmetry? Tissues? Body cavity?

Phyla Brachiopoda, Phoronida, Bryozoa. Lophophore = ciliated feeding ring. Radial or bilateral; triploblastic; coelomate.

What are the characteristics of the echinoderms? What phylum are the echinoderms in? Symmetry? Tissues? Body cavity? Nervous system? What's the water vascular system? What are tube feet? How are they more like us than any organism we've talked about so far?

Phylum Echinodermata. Pentameral radial symmetry (adults); triploblastic; coelomate; nerve ring + radial nerves. Water vascular system = hydraulic network for locomotion/feeding. Tube feet = extensions for movement/feeding. They are deuterostomes like chordates.

What are the different classes of echinoderms and what are the characteristics of each class? What kinds of organisms can be found in each class?

Asteroidea (sea stars; arms radiating from central disk), Ophiuroidea (brittle stars; distinct central disk + long arms), Echinoidea (sea urchins & sand dollars; fused ossicles), Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers; elongated body), Crinoidea (sea lilies & feather stars; stalked or unstalked filter feeders).

What is Aristotle's lantern? What organism possesses this structure?

A complex jaw-like feeding apparatus in sea urchins (Class Echinoidea).

What is evisceration? What organism can do this?

Expulsion of internal organs as defense; done by sea cucumbers (Holothuroidea).

What are the characteristics of the acorn worms? What phylum are the acorn worms in? Symmetry? Tissues? Body cavity? What structure do they use for feeding? How are they like chordates? How are they like echinoderms?

Phylum Hemichordata. Bilateral; triploblastic; coelomate; proboscis + collar + trunk for deposit feeding. Like chordates: pharyngeal gill slits; like echinoderms: deuterostome development.

What are the characteristics of the chordates? What are the 2 subphyla that are invertebrate chordates? What organisms can be found in these subphyla? What's unique about lancelets? What is the largest group of tunicates and what class are the "sea squirts" in? What class are the salps and larvaceans in?

Phylum Chordata: notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, post-anal tail. Invertebrate subphyla: Cephalochordata (lancelets—retain all chordate features as adults), Urochordata/Tunicata (sea squirts in Ascidiacea; salps and larvaceans in Thaliacea & Larvacea).

What are vertebrates? What phylum? What subphylum?

Animals with vertebral column; Phylum Chordata, Subphylum Vertebrata (Craniata).

What is the largest group of vertebrates?

Class Actinopterygii (ray‑finned bony fishes).

What are the 3 classes of fish? What class are the jawless fish in? What are the two types of jawless fish?

Agnatha (jawless, includes Myxini/hagfish & Petromyzontida/lampreys), Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish), Osteichthyes (bony fish).

What are the characteristics of hagfish? What is a craniate? It is a vertebrate?

Hagfish (Myxini): jawless, slime‑producing, skull but no true vertebrae. Craniate = has skull; hagfish are craniates but not true vertebrates (lack vertebrae).

What are the characteristics of lampreys? Is it a craniate? Is it a vertebrate?

Lampreys (Petromyzontida): jawless, parasitic or non‑parasitic, have rudimentary vertebral elements. They are craniates and true vertebrates.

What are the characteristics of Class Chondrichthyes? What are the major groups of cartilaginous fish? What does heterocercal mean?

Sharks, rays, chimaeras with cartilaginous skeletons, placoid scales, no swim bladder. Major groups: Elasmobranchii (sharks & rays), Holocephali (chimaeras). Heterocercal tail = unequal lobes, vertebral column extends into larger upper lobe.

What does demersal mean?

Living on or near the sea floor.

What are the characteristics of Class Osteichthyes? Which group of fish contain the most species? What does homocercal mean?

Bony skeleton, operculum, swim bladder. Ray‑finned fishes (Actinopterygii) are most species‑rich. Homocercal tail = symmetrical lobes.

What are the different body shapes found in fish? What are the properties of each and what kind of fish would possess those body shapes?

Fusiform (streamlined—tuna), laterally compressed (maneuverable—angelfish), depressed (bottom‑dwellers—skates), eel‑like (burrowers—eels), globiform (defensive—pufferfish).

What are chromatophores? What is countershading, warning coloration, cryptic coloration, and disruptive coloration?

Pigment cells for color change. Countershading = dark dorsal/light ventral; warning = bright colors signaling toxicity; cryptic = camouflage; disruptive = bold patterns breaking up outline.

How do bony fish stay afloat? What mechanisms do sharks have to stay afloat?

Bony fish use gas‐filled swim bladder. Sharks rely on large oily liver (low‐density oils), dynamic lift from heterocercal tail, and pectoral fins.

What are myomeres? What are the various fins on a fish called (i.e. know what fin is what on the fish's body!)

Myomeres = W‑shaped muscle blocks for swimming. Fins: dorsal (unpaired, stability), caudal (propulsion), anal (stability), pectoral (maneuvering), pelvic (stability/braking).

What are some of the organs/structures involved in fish digestion & excretion? How is grazer fish digestion different than non‑grazers?

Digestive tract: esophagus, stomach (reduced or absent in grazers), intestine; pyloric caeca; liver; pancreas. Grazers (herbivores) have longer intestines and specialized hindgut for cellulose breakdown.

How many chambers does a fish heart have?

Two (one atrium, one ventricle) plus sinus venosus and bulbus arteriosus in bony fish.

What are the different parts of the gill? What are their functions?

Gill arches (support), gill filaments (respiratory surface), lamellae (gas exchange units), operculum (bony cover in bony fish).

How do cartilaginous fish and bony fish differ in regards to gas exchange?

Bony fish use buccal-opercular pump and operculum; sharks use ram ventilation or buccal pump but no operculum.

What is the countercurrent system of flow? How does this help the fish?

Blood flows opposite to water over lamellae, maximizing diffusion gradient and O₂ uptake.

How do bony fish osmoregulate? How about cartilaginous fish?

Bony fish are hyperosmotic regulators—drink seawater, excrete salts at gills, produce dilute urine. Sharks retain urea (isosmotic), excrete salt via rectal gland.

What is a lateral line and what is its function? What are ampullae of Lorenzini and what is its function?

Lateral line = mechanoreceptors detecting water movement. Ampullae of Lorenzini = electroreceptors detecting electric fields (in sharks/rays).

What is schooling? Why do fish do this? What is territoriality? How do fish express this?

Schooling = synchronized group swimming for defense, hydrodynamics. Territoriality = defending space/resources; expressed by displays, chasing, color changes.

Why do fish migrate? What does anadromous and catadromous mean?

To breed or feed. Anadromous = breed in freshwater, live in saltwater (e.g., salmon); catadromous = breed in saltwater, live in freshwater (e.g., eels).

What is the most common reproductive strategy in fish? Where are gametes released in bony fish and cartilaginous fish?

External fertilization with pelagic eggs in bony fish; internal fertilization with claspers in cartilaginous fish.

What are some examples of fish courtship behavior?

Color changes, fin displays, nest building, synchronized swimming, acoustic signals.

What are hermaphrodites? What are sequential hermaphrodites and simultaneous hermaphrodites? What are protandry and protogyny?

Hermaphrodites have both sexes. Simultaneous = both at once. Sequential = change sex over life. Protandry = male→female; protogyny = female→male.

What do the terms viviparous, oviparous, ovoviviparous, and parthenogenic mean?

Viviparous = live birth with maternal nourishment; oviparous = egg laying; ovoviviparous = eggs hatch internally; parthenogenic = development from unfertilized eggs.

Why are the lobe-finned fish important in regards to evolution? What's an example of a lobe-finned fish? How are they different from the ray-finned fish?

Lobe‑fins (Sarcopterygii) gave rise to tetrapods; example: coelacanth, lungfish. They have fleshy, lobed fins with bones versus thin, ray‑supported fins in Actinopterygii.