chap 6: attitudes and persuasion

Self-affirmation theory

Proposes that when we feel uncomfortable after doing or saying something socially undesirable or that goes against our identity, we look for ways to compensate and boost our positive self-worth.

Self-justification

The desire to explain our questionable actions in a way that preserves or enhances a positive view of the self

Context variables

Situational aspects of how a message is received, such as repetition

Theory of planned behavior

Proposes that behaviors are best predicted by three factors: attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived control.

Univalenced decision

A decision based on an attitude about an attitude object that is either good or bad but not both.

Assortative mating

The process when similar organisms tend to mate with each other

Attitude object

The thing, person, place, or idea we evaluate when we form an attitude.

Attitudes

Inner evaluations or judgments of something or someone, either positive or negative.

Behavioral genetics

The study of how nature and nurture interact to form our attitudes and behaviors.

Implicit Association Test

An indirect way to measure attitudes or mental associations.

Implicit attitudes

Automatic, unconscious evaluations and judgments that can sometimes be outside of our awareness.

Heuristic-systematic model

Proposes two paths to persuasion, called the “heuristic” (indirect) path and the “systematic” (direct) path.

Recipient variables

The audience of a persuasive message.

Social learning theory

Proposes that we form attitudes by observing and imitating others.

Source variables

Who creates and gives a persuasive message.

Lowball technique

A bait-and-switch persuasion technique where people follow through with a decision even after the terms of a “deal” have changed.

Message variables

The information provided in a persuasive message and how it is framed

Message-learning approach

Proposes that there are four elements to the persuasion process: the source (who is doing the persuading), the message (the persuasive information), the recipient (whom they are persuading), and the context (how they are persuading).

Door-in-the-face technique

A persuasion technique where people who refuse a large request are then more likely to agree to a later, smaller request.

Dual attitudes

When we hold contrasting positive and negative evaluations about a single attitude object.

Elaboration likelihood model

Proposes two paths to persuasion: a direct, explicit, “central” route and an indirect, implicit, “peripheral” route. Which works better depends on the audience’s ability and motivation to pay attention.

Explicit attitudes

Controlled, conscious, thoughtful evaluations and judgments we’re aware of making.

Model of dual attitudes

Proposes that new attitudes override, rather than replace, old attitudes. Both attitudes remain, with one stronger than the other.

Norm of reciprocity

The idea that individuals respond in kind to courtesies and concessions from others, because we like things to be “fair.”

Specificity principle

Proposes that the link between attitudes and behaviors is strong when the attitude and the behavior are measured at the same level of specificity.

Bogus pipeline

A fake lie detector machine used to increase honest responses from study participants.

Classical conditioning

A process when an automatic reaction or attitude to one thing is transferred to another after repeated pairings

Cognitive dissonance

A state of psychological discomfort that occurs when we experience conflicting beliefs, attitudes, and/or behaviors.

Communication-persuasion matrix

Proposes six steps in the persuasion process—attention, comprehension, learning, acceptance, retention, and conclusion—which build on each other.

Facial feedback hypothesis

The idea that emotions can happen after someone makes a corresponding facial expression.

Foot-in-the-door technique

A persuasion technique where people are more likely to agree to a big request if they’ve already said yes to a smaller one.

Operant conditioning

A process when our attitudes or behaviors are strengthened by previous rewards or weakened by previous punishments.

Perceived control

Our perception of whether we’re capable of successfully accomplishing a given goal or behavior.

Subjective norms

Our perception of what other people are doing or what we think is “normal” or common in a given situation.

When you evaluate something or someone, you are ______.

forming attitudes

Attitudes refer to our inner evaluations and judgements about something or someone.

The person or thing you make a judgement about is called ______.

an attitude object

The thing that we are evaluating is known as the attitude object.

If you had two opinions about one particular thing or person, you ______.

held dual attitudes

When we have two attitudes about an attitude object, we hold dual attitudes.

T or F: We usually only have either positive or negative feelings about an object.

False

Holding two contrasting attitudes about a single attitude object yields dual attitudes.

T or F: Once we make an evaluation about an attitude object, we don't tend to change our minds.

False

The model of dual attitudes proposes that new attitudes tend to override old ones, but do not completely replace old attitudes.

T or F: Explicit attitudes are automatic reactions we have.

False

Implicit attitudes are automatic responses we have to an attitude object.

Which refers to how we might change our behavior and attitudes based on compliments or praise we receive for doing the same thing in the past?

operant conditioning

Operant conditioning is when a reward for past behavior influences current attitude and future behavior.

The aim of the Theory of Planned Behavior is to ______.

explain people’s decision−making behaviors when they are making deliberate decisions

The Theory of Planned Behavior was developed to explain deliberate decisions based on predicting people’s behaviors.

The expected outcome of applying the Theory of Planned Behavior is ______.

the actual decision that is made

The Theory of Planned Behavior says that what an individual intends to do determines what they do. This variable is referred to as ______.

intention

What an individual wants to do, the intention determines what is actually done.

T or F: You can measure implicit attitudes simply by asking.

False

The easiest most direct way to measure explicit attitudes is to ask. This can be done multiple ways, such as through self−report measures.

If you want to reduce dishonesty among respondents about their attitudes, it might be appropriate to ______.

use a bogus pipeline

A bogus pipeline is a fake lie detector that may be used to increase honesty of some respondents.

T or F: The IAT is widely recognized as a good indicator of future behavior.

False

The Implicit Association Test (IAT) may help us measure and better understand implicit attitudes. It shows that most people have at least some small level of bias; however, it does not necessarily predict whether someone will act prejudicially.

If you want to determine whether an attitude truly predicts future behavior, you should be careful to adhere to ______.

the specificity principle

The specificity principle notes that in order to determine the relationship between an attitude and behavior, one must measure each with the same specificity.

The facial feedback hypothesis supports the idea that ______.

our behaviors can lead to attitude formation.

The facial feedback hypothesis states that you can change your attitudes based on your behaviors.

Which concept states that after doing something hypocritical, we try to impress ourselves to preserve our sense of worth and integrity?

self−affirmation theory

The self−affirmation theory states that we may try to impress ourselves to preserve our sense of worth and integrity.

A ______ is what we perceive everyone else is doing.

Multiple choice question

subjective norm

According to the theory of planned behavior, there are three categories of beliefs that may predict behavioral attitudes. A subjective norm is what we perceive everyone else is doing.

______ is the component of behavior that reflects whether we think we are capable of doing what we want to do.

Multiple choice question

Perceived control

Perceived control is the component of behavior that reflects whether we think we are capable of doing what we want to do.

Leon Festinger believed that in order to maintain agreement between our attitudes and our behaviors, we have ______.

an inner motivation to avoid disagreement between attitudes and behaviors

Festinger believed that we have an inner motivation to avoid discord between our attitudes and behaviors. Our inner motivation causes us to seek ways to align our attitudes with our behaviors.

When participants in Festinger’s study were given a dollar to lie about a boring task, how did they reconcile the cognitive dissonance they experienced?

They changed their attitudes toward the boring task.

The participants convinced themselves that the boring task wasn’t that bad after all, that it was actually fun and exciting.

Participants in the study who received what they perceived as appropriate compensation for lying about the boring task ______.

experienced low levels of cognitive dissonance

Telling a harmless lie for appropriate compensation was sufficient justification for lying. The experiment supported the idea that individuals were less likely to actually believe, or even pretend to believe, the lie, because the $20 compensation gave them a ready explanation for lying.

Conflict between our sense of self and our actions is called ______.

cognitive dissonance

Cognitive dissonance is the conflict between our sense of self and our actions.

The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) notes there are ______ routes to persuasion.

two

ELM notes there are two primary ways to persuade others. When people are high in ability and motivation, they are best motivated through a central or direct route. When people have low ability and motivation, taking a peripheral or implicit route to persuasion is most effective.

If we are concerned with ______ variables, we are interested in who is saying the persuasive statement.

source

The message−learning approach notes that the "who" of the equation refers to the source variable.

T or F: A person is more likely to be persuaded if there are few distractions in their environment.

True

If there are more distractions in the environment or in the mind of the recipient, they are less likely to be persuaded.

T or F: The norm of reciprocity means that you persuade someone based on the idea that they "owe" you.

True

The norm of reciprocity is a category of persuasion. It is based on the idea that if someone does something for you, you "owe" them to do a favor for them.

The facial feedback hypothesis is one attempt to explain which of the following?

Behaviors can lead to attitude formation.

The facial feedback hypothesis states that you can change your attitudes based on your behaviors.

T or F: The communication−persuasion matrix helps explain the direct path to persuasion.

False

The indirect path to persuasion is addressed using the communication persuasion matrix

When a recipient has a low ______, they are more likely to be stubborn.

self−esteem

A low level of self−esteem is associated with a higher level of stubbornness.

If you say that you like a TV show, the show is considered ______.

an attitude object

The thing that we are evaluating is known as the attitude object.

T or F: Nature, not nurture, tends to drive our attitudes.

False

Nature versus nurture is a false dichotomy. Our attitudes come from the interaction between our biology and what we experience.

Tiarra is facing a particularly difficult deadline at work that she is not sure she will be able to meet. When she is reviewing all the tasks that need to be completed she says to herself "I can do this. I can surely get all of these tasks done in time." She also shares this sentiment with her supervisor. Expressing this makes her feel better about her own abilities. This is an example of which of the following?

self−affirmation theory

The self−affirmation theory states that we may try to impress ourselves to preserve our sense of worth and integrity. Here, Tiarra is stating an attitude (that these tasks are doable) which makes her feel better about her own abilities.

A couple is promised a free stay in a beachside condominium if they attend a 30 minute sales pitch about buying a condominium of their own during their stay. They decide to accept the free vacation but tell each other "We are definitely not going to buy a condo during their sales pitch." What persuasion variable are they addressing?

context variable

The couple is trying to give themselves forewarning so that they are not persuaded. This is an example of a context variable

T or F: The foot−in−the−door technique is the opposite of the door−in−the−face technique.

True

Foot−in−the−door technique occurs when we agree to a small request at first. This makes it more likely we will agree to a larger request later. The door−in−the−face technique is when you ask for something large hoping that the recipient will respond favorably when you ask for a smaller request.

Based on study results, which is true about implicit attitudes?

Most people have at least some unconscious stereotypes.

The Implicit Association Test (IAT) may help us measure and better understand implicit attitudes. It shows that most people have at least some small level of bias; however, it does not necessarily predict whether someone will act prejudicially.

Which of the following notes that to determine whether attitude will predict behavior, one must measure both the same way?

the specificity principle

The specificity principle notes that in order to determine the relationship between an attitude and behavior, one must measure each with the same specificity.

Which is an automatic reaction toward an attitude object?

implicit attitude

Implicit attitudes are automatic responses we have to an attitude object.

What refers to the desire to explain our actions in a way that maintains our own positive view of who we are?

self−justification

Self−justification is when we try to explain our own actions in a way that either helps us maintain our own positive view of ourselves or enhances a positive view of ourselves.

Advertising companies may use classical conditioning to influence your attitudes.

True

This occurs when companies try to take their neutral product (like a hamburger) and associate it with things that elicit an automatic positive attitude(sex).

Tom believes that he is an ethical worker. However, one day, a coworker points out that him taking and using office supplies for personal matters is a form of stealing. Tom is stressed by this and vows not to take office supplies anymore. What is this an example of?

the effect of cognitive dissonance on attitudes

In this case, the conflict between Tom's sense of self and his actions caused him to change his view on taking office supplies. This, in turn, changed his behavior.

Which component of the message−learning approach addresses who says a persuasion message?

source variable

The message−learning approach notes that the "who" of the equation refers to the source variable.