AP Gov Unit 2 Summative Full Review

Thomas Hobbes

An English philosopher who argued in Leviathan that an absolute sovereign is necessary to prevent a "state of nature" or chaos. He believed people form a social contract giving up some freedoms for security.

Limited Government

A core political principle where the power of the government is restricted by a constitution laws and the consent of the governed to protect individual rights.

John Locke

An English philosopher who advocated for natural rights (life liberty and property) and believed government exists to protect these rights. He argued that citizens have the right to overthrow a government that fails to do so a concept known as the consent of the governed.

Baron de Montesquieu

A French philosopher known for his theory of the separation of powers advocating for dividing government into legislative executive and judicial branches to prevent tyranny.

Natural Rights

The belief that individuals are born with inherent rights such as life liberty and property that are not granted by any government.

Popular Sovereignty

The principle that the government's authority is created and sustained by the consent of its people who are the ultimate source of political power. "We the People" is a classic expression of this idea.

Representative Republic

A system of government where citizens elect representatives to make laws and policies for them as opposed to a direct democracy where citizens vote on all issues.

Republicanism

A political ideology centered on citizenship in a state organized as a republic. It promotes liberty unalienable rights and the idea that legitimate government is based on the consent of the governed.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

A philosopher who argued in The Social Contract for popular sovereignty and that the "general will" of the people should be the ultimate authority in government.

John Adams

A leading Founding Father the second U.S. President and a strong proponent of a powerful centralized government during the constitutional debates.

Declaration of Independence

The 1776 document that announced the separation of the American colonies from Great Britain and articulated the core American political philosophies of natural rights and popular sovereignty.

Ben Franklin

A key Founding Father diplomat and inventor who was instrumental in drafting the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution and in securing French aid during the Revolution.

Alexander Hamilton

A primary author of The Federalist Papers and the first Secretary of the Treasury. He was a leading Federalist who advocated for a strong national government and a robust economy.

Thomas Jefferson

The principal author of the Declaration of Independence and the third U.S. President. He was a champion of individual liberties and a more limited central government.

James Madison

Known as the "Father of the Constitution" for his crucial role in drafting the document. He also co-authored The Federalist Papers and drafted the Bill of Rights.

U.S. Constitution

The supreme law of the United States establishing the framework of the national government dividing powers and protecting the rights of citizens.

George Washington

The commander of the Continental Army president of the Constitutional Convention and the first U.S. President who set crucial precedents for the executive branch.

Elite Democracy

A model of democracy where a small wealthy and well-educated group holds the most political power and influences policy-making.

Interest Group

An organization of people with shared policy goals that seeks to influence the political process at various points to achieve those goals.

Participatory Democracy

A model of democracy that emphasizes broad direct citizen participation in politics and civil society. Examples include town hall meetings and ballot initiatives.

Pluralist Democracy

A model of democracy where various organized groups compete for influence resulting in political compromise and negotiation. No single group dominates.

Representative Democracy

A system where citizens elect officials to represent their interests and make policy decisions on their behalf. The U.S. is a representative democracy.

Anti-Federalists

Opponents of the 1787 Constitution who feared it created an overly powerful central government. They demanded a Bill of Rights to protect individual liberties.

Federalists

Supporters of the 1787 Constitution who argued for a strong national government to remedy the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation.

Initiative

A process in some states that allows citizens to propose legislation and submit it to the voters for direct approval or rejection.

Referendum

A process that allows the legislature to submit proposed laws or constitutional amendments to the voters for their direct approval.

Factions

A term used by James Madison in Federalist No. 10 to describe groups (like interest groups or parties) motivated by self-interest which could potentially threaten the public good.

Federalist No. 10

An essay by James Madison arguing that a large representative republic is the best way to control the negative effects of factions.

Brutus No. 1

An Anti-Federalist essay arguing that a large centralized republic would become tyrannical destroy state sovereignty and could not effectively represent the diverse interests of such a vast territory.

Articles of Confederation

The first constitution of the United States (1781-1789). It established a weak central government and placed most powers with the states leading to significant governance problems.

Shays' Rebellion

An armed uprising of indebted Massachusetts farmers in 1786-87. The rebellion highlighted the inability of the government under the Articles of Confederation to maintain order spurring calls for a new constitution.

Bicameral

A legislature with two houses or chambers like the U.S. Congress which consists of the House of Representatives and the Senate.

Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution which guarantee fundamental rights and liberties like freedom of speech religion and the right to a fair trial.

Constitutional Convention

The 1787 meeting in Philadelphia where delegates from twelve of the thirteen states gathered to amend the Articles of Confederation but ultimately drafted the U.S. Constitution.

Electoral College

The system established by the Constitution for indirectly electing the president and vice president. Voters choose electors who then cast the formal votes for president.

Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise)

An agreement at the Constitutional Convention that created a bicameral legislature with a House of Representatives based on population (Virginia Plan) and a Senate with equal representation for each state (New Jersey Plan).

New Jersey Plan

A constitutional proposal favored by smaller states for a unicameral legislature with one vote per state.

Virginia Plan

A constitutional proposal favored by larger states for a bicameral legislature with representation in both houses based on population.

Ratification

The official approval of the Constitution or a constitutional amendment by the states.

Three-Fifths Compromise

A compromise that counted each enslaved person as three-fifths of a person for determining a state's population for both representation in the House and for taxation purposes.

Article V

The section of the Constitution that details the process for amending the document requiring a two-stage process of proposal (by Congress or a national convention) and ratification (by the states).

Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA)

The 2015 federal education law that replaced No Child Left Behind. It gives states more flexibility in setting educational standards and accountability measures.

No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB)

The 2002 federal education law that increased federal oversight of public schools mandating standardized testing to measure school performance.

Race to the Top

An Obama-era competitive grant program that encouraged states to implement ambitious reforms in K-12 education.

USA PATRIOT Act

A law passed after the 9/11 attacks that expanded the surveillance powers of the federal government to combat terrorism raising questions about the balance between security and liberty.

Checks and Balances

A constitutional system where each branch of government has powers to prevent the other branches from becoming too powerful. For example the president can veto a bill from Congress but Congress can override the veto.

Federalist No. 51

An essay by James Madison that explains and defends the principles of checks and balances and separation of powers stating that "ambition must be made to counteract ambition."

Separation of Powers

The division of governmental authority among the legislative executive and judicial branches to ensure that no single branch can dominate the government.

Stakeholders

Individuals or groups outside of government (e.g. interest groups corporations citizens) who have a vested interest in a policy decision.

Advice and Consent

The constitutional power of the Senate to approve presidential appointments (like judges and cabinet secretaries) and treaties.

Impeachment

The process by which the House of Representatives brings formal charges against a federal official. A trial is then conducted in the Senate to determine guilt and potential removal from office.

Pocket Veto

An indirect veto that occurs when the president does not sign a bill within ten days and Congress adjourns during that time.

Two-thirds Override

The power of Congress to pass a law over a presidential veto which requires a two-thirds vote in both the House and the Senate.

Veto

The president's constitutional power to reject a bill passed by Congress preventing it from becoming law unless overridden.

Concurrent Powers

Powers shared by both the federal and state governments such as the power to tax borrow money and establish courts.

Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA)

A 1996 federal law that defined marriage for federal purposes as a union between one man and one woman. It was ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court.

Exclusive Powers

Powers granted by the Constitution solely to the federal government such as the power to declare war coin money and regulate interstate commerce.

Extradition

The constitutional requirement that states must return a person charged with a crime in another state to that state for trial or imprisonment.

Federalism

A system of government where power is divided between a national government and regional state governments.

Full Faith and Credit Clause

The clause in Article IV of the Constitution that requires states to recognize the public acts records and judicial proceedings of every other state (e.g. a driver's license).

Police Powers

The inherent powers of state governments to regulate for the health safety morals and general welfare of their citizens.

Privileges and Immunities Clause

The clause in Article IV of the Constitution that prevents states from discriminating against citizens of other states.

Supremacy Clause

The clause in Article VI of the Constitution stating that the Constitution federal laws and treaties are the "supreme Law of the Land" and take precedence over conflicting state laws.

Block Grants

Federal funds given to states for broad purposes (e.g. community development) with few strings attached giving states more flexibility.

Categorical Grants

Federal funds given to states for specific purposes (e.g. building an airport) that often come with conditions or "strings" attached.

Cooperative Federalism

A model of federalism where the national and state governments work together to complete projects. Often called "marble cake" federalism.

Devolution

The transfer of powers and responsibilities from the federal government back to state and local governments.

Federal Grants

Money provided by the federal government to states and localities to fund a wide range of programs and services.

Fiscal Federalism

The pattern of federal spending taxing and providing grants to influence state and local governments.

Grant-in-Aid Programs

Federal funds given to states and localities for specific programs representing a key tool of federal influence.

Mandates

Rules issued by the federal government that states must comply with whether or not they receive federal funding.

Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act

The 1996 welfare reform act that shifted responsibility for welfare to the states through block grants (e.g. TANF) a key example of devolution.

Revenue Sharing

A former federal program that provided a share of federal tax revenue to states and localities with no restrictions on how the money could be spent.

Strings

The conditions and requirements that states must meet to receive federal grants.

Commerce Clause

The clause in Article I Section 8 of the Constitution that gives Congress the power to regulate interstate and international commerce. Its interpretation has been central to the expansion of federal power.

Dual Federalism

A model of federalism where the national and state governments are supreme within their own distinct spheres. Often called "layer cake" federalism.

Elastic Clause

Another name for the Necessary and Proper Clause.

Enumerated Powers

Powers of the federal government that are explicitly listed in the Constitution such as those found in Article I Section 8.

Implied Powers

Powers of the federal government that are not explicitly stated in the Constitution but are inferred from the Necessary and Proper Clause to carry out its enumerated powers.

14th Amendment

A post-Civil War amendment that grants citizenship and guarantees "equal protection of the laws" and "due process." It has been used to apply the Bill of Rights to the states.

Necessary and Proper Clause

The clause in Article I Section 8 that grants Congress the power to pass all laws "necessary and proper" for carrying out its enumerated powers. Also known as the Elastic Clause.

Selective Exclusiveness

A legal doctrine stating that when a commercial activity requires a national uniform rule only Congress can regulate it.

10th Amendment

The amendment that states that the powers not delegated to the federal government nor prohibited to the states are reserved for the states or the people.

Clean Air Act

A comprehensive federal law that regulates air pollution and authorizes the EPA to establish national air quality standards.

Clean Water Act

A federal law that regulates the discharge of pollutants into the nation's surface waters and sets water quality standards.

Endangered Species Act

A federal law that provides for the conservation of species that are endangered or threatened and the conservation of the ecosystems on which they depend.

Kyoto Protocol

An international treaty to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The U.S. signed but did not ratify it.

Paris Agreement

A 2015 international agreement on climate change where countries pledged to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The U.S. has joined withdrawn and rejoined this accord.

Controlled Substances Act

A 1970 federal law that classifies illegal drugs and establishes a comprehensive framework for federal drug control often creating federal-state conflicts over marijuana policy.

Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA)

A 1965 federal law that provides funding to K-12 education to ensure equal access. It has been reauthorized multiple times most notably as No Child Left Behind and the Every Student Succeeds Act.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

A landmark Supreme Court case that affirmed the supremacy of the national government. It ruled that Congress had implied powers under the Necessary and Proper Clause to create a national bank and that states could not tax a federal entity.

United States v. Lopez (1995)

A Supreme Court case that limited Congress's power under the Commerce Clause. The Court ruled that the federal Gun-Free School Zones Act was unconstitutional because possessing a gun in a school zone did not have a substantial effect on interstate commerce.

1st Amendment

Freedom of speech, press, religion, assembly, and petition.

2nd Amendment

Right to bear arms.

3rd Amendment

Citizens do not have to house soldiers.

4th Amendment

No unreasonable search or arrest.

5th Amendment

No double jeopardy or no witness against yourself.

6th Amendment

The right to a speedy and public trial.

7th Amendment

The right to a jury trial in civil matters of $20 and over.

8th Amendment

No excessive bail or cruel punishment.