Neolithic Revolution, Ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Israel History

Neolithic Revolution

c. 10,000-3500 BCE

● Around 10,000 BCE marks one of the biggest turning

points in ancient history

● Transition from foraging to agriculture and herding

● Once humans began domesticating plants and

animals, they no longer had to move and allowed for

permanent villages

● Developed into towns and then larger cities

● Surpluses funded specialists (craftsment, priests) and

elites

● New tech was invented, such as pottery, weaving,

polished stone, irrigation, and long-distance trading

emerged

● Social classes and early states begin to appear where

population growth accelerates

Fertile Crescent

● Region of earliest domestication and urbanization

→ where humans shifted from farming/herding

● Contains rivers Tigirs/Euphrates that cause the

annual floods

→ require irrigation and water systems for agriculture

● People and goods are moved along rivers connecting

Egypt, Levant, Mesopotamia

Ur

Early Dynastic → Ur III (c. 2600-2000 BCE)

● Major Sumerian city state that was created by king

Ur rivaling Uruk and Lagesh which each had its

respective ruler and god.

● This took place in the Early Dynastic period between

2600-2000 BCE

● King was seen as a representative of the gods ruling

under divine authority

● Contained monumental ziggurats

Ut-Napishtim

● The sole survivor of the flood as he was favored by

the gods

● Story is often compared to Noah's Ark

● Gilgamesh seeks to learn how he beat mortality and

tells gilgamesh about the plant of renewal (which the

serpent then steals)

Gilgamesh

Legendary king c. 2700 BCE; epic compiled 2nd mill.

● King of Uruk in c. 2700 BCE (if it was real)

● Oppressive ruler which gods create Enkidu to match

his power and check him

● They fight and become friends

● They kill Humbaba → evil guardian of the cedar forest

for their own pride but as a favor to the gods

● Rejects Ishtar and then kills the Bull of Heaven with

Enkidu

● Grieves Enkidu's death and seeks immortality with

Utnapishtim

● Fails the sleep test, a serpent steals the plant of

renewal which was his last chance for immortality

● Finally accepts human mortality and returns to Uruk

Enkidu

A wild man created by the God's to stop Gilgamesh

from abusing his power, specifically made to kill him

● Gilgamesh sends a prostitute to tame/civilize Enkidu

→ puts on clothes, and becomes a shepard →

metaphor for shift from hunter-gatherers to herders

● Becomes allies with Gilgamesh and defeat Humbaba

and the Bull of Heaven

● Gods strike Enkidu with a mortal illness as

punishment and his death triggers Gilgamesh's quest

for immortality

Sargon of Akkad

r. c. 2340-2284 BCE

● King Sargon founded and ruled Akaad from r. c.

2340-2284 BCE

● Founder of the first empire in Mesopotamia

● He was favored by the goddess Ishtar and rose from

gardener to king, seizing power in Kish

● Then conquered south of Sumar

Hammurabi

r. 1792-1750 BCE King from r. 1792-1750 BCE of a united lower Mesopotamia called Babylon

● Created the code of Hammurabi → a code of laws for

Babylon

Rosetta Stone

Found 1799 (seized 1801); deciphered 1822 Ptolemaic

● Found in 1799 in Rosetta, lower Egypt during the

Ptolemaic period, but is now in the British Museum

● The inscriptions are in two languages, Greek and

Egyptian, and in multiple Egyptian scripts,

hieroglyphic and demotic.

Narmer-Menes

c. 3100 BCE Dynasty I — Early Dynastic

● First pharaoh who united upper and lower Egypt

marking the beginning of the Early Dynastic period in

c. 3100 BCE as the 1st dynasty

● The Narmer palette was made during his reign and

depicts the king wearing both the red and white

crowns from the different regions (upper and lower)

of Egypt symbolizing unification.

● Founded Egypt's first capital at Memphis

Manetho

3rd c. BCE Ptolemaic

● Egyptian priest and historian during the Ptolemaic period

● Organized Egyptian dynasties

Zoser

r. c. 2667-2648 BCE Dynasty III — Old Kingdom

● Ordered the constriction of the Step Pyramids at

Saqqara in r. c. 2667-2648 BCE during the 3rd

Dynasty in the Old Kingdom

● Often considered the first monumental stone

structure in history

Imhotep

fl. c. 2650 BCE Dynasty III — Old Kingdom

● He was the architect of the Step Pyramids at Saqqara

for Zoser in fl. c. 2650 BCE in the 3rd dynasty during

the Old Kingdom

● He was later defined as son of Ptah, the god of

craftsmen and given divine lineage in hindsight

Great Pyramids of Giza

c. 2580-2510 BCE Dynasty IV — Old Kingdom

● The pyramids of Giza were built between c.

2580-2510 BCE in the 4th dynasty during the Old

Kingdom, this was also considered the Pyramid Age

● Built for the three pharaohs: Khufu, Khafre, and

Menjaure → Khufu had the largest one

● Ramps were used for construction and corvée labor

which was categorized as state labor and considered a tax, this was instead of chattel slavery

a tax, this was instead of chattel slavery

● The Sphinx was also built during this similar time as a

represneattion of himself shown as a man-headed

lion

Ra / Amon-Ra

Old → New Kingdom

● Ra was the sun god who rose to supremacy in the 5th

Dynasty

● Pharaohs added "son of Ra" to their titles and built

temples at Heliopolis which was the main cult center

● Amon was the local Theben god who became

powerful during the 12th Dynasty in the middle

kingdom

● Amon-Ra arose after the fusion of Amun and Ra

during the Middle Kingdom

→ It then remained as Egypt's chief deity in the New

Kingdom

→ Patron god of Thebes and of kings such as

Hatshepsut and Thutmose III

maat

● Represents right order, justice, and truth ensuring

balance and social harmony

● Pharaoh's duty was to uphold Ma'at ensuring

prosperity and justice in Egypt

● Without it Egypt would fall to chaos and foreign

invasion

● The feather of Ma'at was using in the Weighing of the

Heart ceremony to determine worthiness in the

afterlife

Ammenemes/ Amenemhat I

r. 1991-1962 BCE Dynasty XII — Middle Kingdom

● Reunified Egypt in r. 1991-1962 BCE during the 12th

dynasty in the middle kingdom after the first

intermediate period where royal power had

collapsed due to the nobles taking control and

restores rule to the pharaohs

● Moved the capital of Egypt from Thebes to Itjtawy

● Introduced co-regency with Sesostris I

● Fortified eastern border to block out the Asiatics

● During his period of reign literature flourished and

the middle kingdom was known as the "classical" age

of Egyptian literature.

Sinuhe

c. 20th c. BCE setting Middle Kingdom (Dyn. XII context)

● Sinuhe's story took place in c. 20th c. BCE during the

Middle Kingdom

● Court official flees Egypt after the king's death,

reasons for fleeing are unclear in the story

● He lived in exile among the Asiatics, is taken in my the

king and marries the king's daughter, becomes leader

of an army, but although he is rich in wealth and life it

is not enough and feels homesick

● He returns to Egypt and is pardoned by the king and

granted a tomb near the pharaoh upon his death

● Reflects the contact Egyptians had with foreigners

such as the Asiatics

● Shows the humanization of the Pharaoh

"Asiatics" (Aamw)

esp. 2nd Intermediate

● Egyptian term for the Semitic peoples from Western

Asia (Levant)

● Entered through the Sinai Desert → bridge between

Egypt ad Asia

● Also seen as traders or invaders throughout history

● In the Middle Kingdom, Amenemhat I fortified the

borders so they wouldn't be able to enter

Nubia

MK and NK focus

● A region in south of Egypt that was divided into

Wawat in lower Nubia and Kush in upper Nubia

● In the middle kingdom Nubia faced expansion under

Sesostris III

● During the New Kingdom it was further colonized by

Amenhotep I and Thutmose I

● Nubians later actually admired Egyptian gods and

adopted their culture

Sesostris III

r. 1878-1839 BCE Dynasty XII — Middle Kingdom

● Sesostris III ruled from r. 1878-1839 BCE in the 17th

Dynasty during the middle kingdom

● He was one of the strongest MK pharaohs

● Expanded far into Nubia and limited Nubians travel

into Egypt

● He was later worshipped in Nubia as a god after his

campaigns

Hyksos

c. 1650-1550 BCE Second Intermediate Period

● Hyksos appeared in c. 1650-1550 BCE during the

second intermediate period

● The name Hyksos had multiple definitions, Egyptians

said "chieftains of a foreign land"

● They originated from Levent and have semitic

languages

● They ruled northern Egypt in Avaris while the

Egyptians continued to rule in Thebes in the south

● Introduced horses and chariots which was later used

by the Egyptians to rebuild military power

● They were then expelled from Egypt by Ahmose I in

the 18th dynasty who reunified Egypt and founded

the New Kingdom

Ahmose I

r. 1552-1527 BCE Dynasty XVIII — New Kingdom

● Ruled a reunified Egypt in r. 1552-1527 BCE during

the 18th dynasty which began the New Kingdom

● Expelled the Hyksos from Avaris which ended the

second intermediate period

● Re-established Thebes as the capital and restored

Egyptian sovereignty

● Defeated a rival Nubian king

Hatshepsut

r. 1490-1469 BCE Dynasty XVIII — New Kingdom

● Hatshepsut ruled from r. 1490-1469 BCE in the 18th

dynasty of the New Kingdom

● She was the daughter of Thutmose I and was the first

female pharaoh to lead Egypt

● She ruled in her own right where she seized the

throne and took the titles of a pharaoh

● Many inconsistencies were found in the

representation and inscriptions of Hatshepsut's

gender due to the Egyptian's conservative mindset

● She peacefully expanded Egypt's trade and ruled

under Ra and Ma'at after the Hyksos rule

● She disappears and was most likely overthrown by

Thutmose III and later he tried to erase her memory

by defacing her monuments and replacing her name

with the names of Thutmose I and II

Tuthmosis III

r. 1490-1436 BCE Dynasty XVIII — New Kingdom

● Thutmose III now takes the throne in r. 1490-1436

BCE during the 18th dynasty of the New Kingdom

after being denied for 2 decades

● Takes throne after Hatshepsut, which is predicted he

overthrew and during his reign he tried to eliminate

her name and deface her monuments, as well as

replace her names with past kings such as Thutmose I

and II.

● During his reign he had a major military focus and

was able to expand Egypt far into foreigners land.

● One of his most famous conquests was the battle of

Megiddo which occurred in Levent.

● He brought immense wealth into Egypt where most

of it was allocated to Pharaohs and temples, most

specifically the temple of Ammun-Ra in Thebes

Amenhotep IV / Akhenaten

r. 1364-1347 BCE Dynasty XVIII — Amarna

● Amenhotep IV who then changed his name to

Akhenaten ruled Egypt from r. 1364-1347 BCE during

the 18th dynasty in the New Kingdom

● During his reign he introduced a new religions

revolution known as "atenism". This new religion

would replace the god Ammun-Ra with Aten who was

defined as a single sun disk

● He also moved the capital from Thebes to Akhetaten

which translated to "rise of Aten"

● This was both a religious and political move shifting

Egypt from polytheism to quasi-monotheism in

service of Aten

● However, after his death Tutankhamun restored

traditional worship including Ammun-Ra and Ma'at

Sea Peoples

c. 1220 & 1184-1150 BCE waves Dynasties XIX-XX — Late New Kingdom

● The Sea People were present in 1220 and 1184-1150

BCE which was in during the 19th and 20th dynasties

in the late New Kingdom

● Came from eastern mediterranean and collaborated

with the Libyans in attempt to invade Egypt. They

brought families and animals implying that they were

also hoping to settle there.

● Were defeated by the Egyptian Pharaohs of that

period, Mernptah and Ramses III

Ten Commandments

Trad. Sinai event

● Given to Moses at Mount Sinai

● Defined Yahweh as the main worshipping God but

also admits that there are other gods below him

● Shift to monotheism where "Exodus 20" bans

idolatry, worship to idols like the Canaanite idol of

Ball

● Drew sharp boundaries from Egyptian and Canaanite

practice

Covenant Code

c. 13th-12th c. BCE (trad.)

● Given to Moses at mount Sinai and used in early israel

● Legal norms that separate Israel from its neighbors

Abraham

Trad. early 2nd-mill. BCE

● In early 2nd millennium BCE, Abraham leaves Ur to

migrates through Haran and arriving at Canaan

defining the origin's of Israel in Mesopotamia

● Abraham migrated alongside semitic groups into

Palestine which also consisted of Patriarchs

Moses

Trad. 13th c. BCE

● During the 13th century BCE Moses led the enslaved

Hebrews escaped Egypt

● This story wasn't recorded by the Egyptians so

Exodus magnifies the event as an immigration

● Led the Hebrews into the Sinai desert where it was

said they "wandered" for 40 years

● God appeared to Moses in Mount Sinai and gives him

the 10 commandments and he then inaugurates the

sinai covenant

● At Sinai Israel is not yet monotheistic recognizing that

other gods exist beneath Yahweh

Philistines

c. 12th-7th c. BCE

● The Philistines, consisting of Sea Peoples, arrive in

Canaan soon after the Israelites in c. 12th-7th c. BCE

● They were more organized and had more advanced

tech due to them reaching the iron age before the

Israelites

● Military advantage with iron weapons allowing them

to spread North into Canaan

Saul

r. c. 1020-1000 BCE

● In r. c. 1020-1000 BCE Saul was appointed as first king

of Israel by Samuel

David

r. c. 1000-961 BCE

● Rose from a Shepard to Saul's armor bearer

● David kills Goliath and flees Saul and ends up fighting

for the Phillistines for a while.

● Once Saul died he returns home and becomes second

king of Israel from r. c. 1000-961 BCE

● He captures City of Jerusalem which he makes the

political capital and religious center. He permanently

moves Israelites most sacred object, the Ark of the

Covenant into Jerusalem.

● Defeats the Phillistines and forces them to pay tribute

to him

● Lastly, expanded north to the city of Syria, including

the city of Damascus

Solomon

r. c. 961-922 BCE

● David's son and successor as king who ruled from r. c.

961-922 BCE in Jerusalem

● He built the Solomon temple on the Temple Mount in

Jerusalem to house the Ark

● Fortified territories gained by David

● Had a dynastic marriage, and took in daughter of the

Egyptian Pharaoh establishing an alliance with Egypt

● Allowed non-Israelite wives to worship their own

native gods and built temples for them in Jerusalem

● After Solomon the kingdom splits

Ark of the

Covenant

Iron Age I cult object

● Israelites most sacred object during the Iron Age

● Made up of the Ark → a wooden chest, and the

covenant → the ten commandments engraved in

stone

● Was previously used as a portable shrine and was

even brought to battles

● But was permanently brought to Jerusalem by David

Josiah's Purge

622 BCE

Babylonian

Captivity

586-539 BCE

Ashur

Bronze-Iron Age

● Early Assyrian capital during the Bronze age

● Also refers to chief national god of Assyria → city

served as his principal cult center

Shamshi-adad I

r. c. 1808-1776 BCE

● Old Assyrian king ruling upper Mesopotamia through

r. c. 1808-1776 BCE

● Used Shubat-Enil as his capital

Tukulti-ninurta I

r. 1244-1208 BCE

● Was king of Assyria in r. 1244-1208 BCE

● Conquered Babylonia

Ashurbanipal

r. 668-627 BCE

● Neo-Assyrian king who ruled from Nineveh where his

court and royal palace were

● Represents peak and decline of Assyrian power

before throughout r. 668-627 BCE