AP Bio Chapter 12-14 Genetics

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read DNA notes (from chapter 3)

telomerase

lengthens strands and makes sure there is no kinks

DNA fork

where DNA splits

DNA polymerase

there are 3 of them

makes sure everything is correct at the end

RNA primase

preps DNA strand to make a new strand

has 5 to 10 nucleotides

topoisomerase

untwists DNA and makes it stay untwisted

46

how many chromosomes in each cell

bonded molecules names

dimer- 2 molecules together

oligomer- a few molecules bonded

polymer- many molecules together

helicase

protein that breaks the hydrogen bonds between DNA strands

acts as an enzyme

rna

DNA replication

reads 3 prime to 5 prime

prime ends

5 prime and 3 prime ends of a nucleotide

phosphate group attached to the 5th carbon

nitrogen base is attached to the first carbon

nucleotides bond with one right side up and the other upside down

5 prime is lagging (has fragments for new DNA called Okazaki fragments)

3 prime is leading (hooks to 3 prime first and is a continuously new strand)

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

molecule with a double-helix that carries the genetic information of a cell

bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine

Monomer

the smallest unit of larger molecules called polymers

Messenger Rna

Nucleic acid

macromolecule that contains the DNA of a cell and the instructions for the functioning of the cell

monomer: nucleotides

bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, uracil

Nucleotide

monomer of nucleic acids; has sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen base 

Phosphodiester linkage

covalent chemical bond that holds together the polynucleotide chains, with a phosphate group linking two pentose sugars of neighboring nucleotides 

Polymer

chain of monomers that are linked by covalent bonds; polymerization is the process of polymer formation from monomers by condensation

Polynucleotide

long chain of nucleotides

Purine

type of nitrogen base in DNA and RNA; adenine and guanine are purines

Pyrimidine

type of nitrogen base in DNA and RNA; cytosine, thymine, and uracil are pyrimidines

Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

single-stranded, often internally base paired, molecule that is involved in protein synthesis 

bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

RNA that makes sure there is proper alignment of the mRNA and the ribosomes during protein synthesis and starts the formation of the peptide linkage

Transcription

process through messenger RNA forms on a template of DNA

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

RNA that carries activated amino acids to where protein synthesis is occurring on the ribosome

Translation

process through which RNA directs the formation of protein 

polymer

made up of monomers

joined together through dehydration synthesis

genetic drift

the change in frequency of an existing gene variant in the population due to random chance. Genetic drift may cause gene variants to disappear completely and thereby reduce genetic variation. It could also cause initially rare alleles to become much more frequent, and even fixed.

pedigree

shows relationships between family members and indicates which individuals have certain genetic pathogenic variants, traits, and diseases within a family as well as vital status. A pedigree can be used to determine disease inheritance patterns within a family.

translocation

occurs when a chromosome breaks and the (typically two) fragmented pieces re-attach to different chromosomes.

Hardy Weinburg

genetic variation in a population will remain constant from one generation to the next in the absense og disturbing factors. These factors disturb the population:

• prey disappearing

• significant change in habitat (climate change, humans develop)

• genetic mutation/new species introduced

conditions must be met in a population for the genetic variation to remain constant:

• large population

• the population must be isolated from other populations, no immigration/emigration

• no mutations

• random mating

• no natural selection (every gen can survive to the next)

p + q= 1

p² + 2pq +q² = 1

p = frequency of the dominant allele in the population

q = frequency of the recessive allele in the population

p² = percentage of homozygous dominant individuals

q²= percentage of homozygous recessive individuals

2pq = percentage of heterozygous individuals

Population Genetics

the study of genetic variation within and among populations and the evolutionary factors that explain this variation

nondisjunction

is the failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate properly during cell division. This can lead to abnormal chromosome numbers in daughter cells

occurs during anaphase one or two

inversion

occurs when a segment breaks off and reattaches within the same chromosome, but in reverse orientation. DNA may or may not be lost in the process.

karyotypes

an individual's complete set of chromosomes.

crossing over

a cellular process that happens during meiosis when chromosomes of the same type are lined up. When two chromosomes — one from the mother and one from the father — line up, parts of the chromosome can be switched. The two chromosomes contain the same genes, but may have different forms of the genes

autosomal

equal trait among female and males

sex linked

more males with trait is result

traits are traits controlled by genes located on sex chromosomes. In humans, these traits are often associated with the X chromosome and can be passed from one generation to the next through the sex chromosomes.

cis

dominant and recessive trait on the same chromosome

trans

dominant and recessive trait on difference chromosomes

lethal mutations

genetic alterations that cause severe abnormalities, often resulting in the death of the organism.

proofreading

when the DNA is checked to make sure it is right. the enzymes can backtrack

• repairs mismatches

• primase is almost always right so repair is very rare

homologous

describes descent from a common evolutionary origin: two genes are homologous if they derive from the same ancestral gene.

analogous

genes that have identical or similar function but don't share a common ancestor and are therefore unrelated as opposed to homologous genes.

vestigial

the retention, during the process of evolution, of genetically determined structures or attributes that have lost some or all of the ancestral function in a given species

ex: wisdom teeth

SSBS

stabilize the strands and prevent the old strands from coming together after they have been separated by the helicase; single stranded binding protein; preps the area on the original strand for DNA polymerase

• nucleotides want to hook together like magnets

Alleles

a variant form of a gene, which can result in different traits or characteristics in an organism. ______ are located on corresponding positions on homologous chromosomes.

Punnet Squares

a square diagram that is used to predict the genotypes of a particular cross or breeding experiment.

Dna polymerase 1

removes the primer and identifies where the nucleotides need to hook up

incomplete dominance

a form of Gene interaction in which both alleles of a gene at a locus are partially expressed, often resulting in an intermediate or different phenotype. It is also known as partial dominance. For eg., in roses, the allele for red colour is dominant over the allele for white colour.

complete dominance

the effect of one allele in a heterozygous genotype completely masks the effect of the other. The allele that masks are considered dominant to the other allele, and the masked allele is considered recessive.

codominance

a type of inheritance in which two versions (alleles) of the same gene are expressed separately to yield different traits in an individual

law of segregation

states that each individual has two alleles for each gene, and these alleles separate during the formation of gametes.

law of independent assortment

states that alleles of different genes segregate independently of one another during gamete formation.

Dna polymerase 3

attaches nucleotides.

responsible for synthesizing the leading and lagging strands during DNA replication in prokaryotes.

ligase

will make sure nucleotides are joined together (because they are not originally fully connected)

phosphodiester bond

A phosphodiester bond is a chemical bond that links nucleotides in DNA and RNA strands. It connects the phosphate group of one nucleotide to the hydroxyl group on the sugar of another nucleotide.

semicontinuous

the leading strand is continuous but the lagging strand is discontinuous

alternation of generations in plants

sporophyte- produces spores (on a fern, a sori)

spore undergoes mitosis and produces a gameophyte (haploid that makes gametes)

gametes come together to make a zygote

asexual reproduction (spore) sexual reproduction (gamete)

triglyceride

neutral fats

composed of two types of building blocks: 3 fatty acids and a glycerol

glycerol- makes the backbone, 3 fatty acids make the chains coming off of the backbone

E shape

glycerol remains the same for all neutral fats but the 3 fatty acids can differ (gives the fats their individual characteristics)

oxidation process

Chemical reaction in which a substance loses electrons, resulting in an increase in its oxidation state. It involves the addition of oxygen or the removal of hydrogen, and often produces heat and light.

breaks down glucose to make ATP

ATP production from carbs

energy that was trapped in the bonds of ATP is released during oxidation process

carbs ingested are converted to glycogen or fat and stored (eat too many carbs—→ gain weight)

genotype

genes you have

phenotype

how the genes are expressed or presented

flower parts

ripe ovary= fruit

alternation of gen if no fruit

onion is in a bulb

tulips grow faster in bulbs than seeds

petals= protect

sperm lands in stigma = fertilized ovules = zygote = seed develops at the bottom

anther= pollen, spore

hardy weinburg steps

1. solve for q² (dominant/total)

2. find q (square root)

3. solve for p (1-q= p)

4. solve for heterozygous (2pq)

nucleotide parts

sugar, (5 carbon) nitrogen base, phosphate group

replication fork

when DNA strands split to make a fork