Educational Psychology EXAM 1

Evidence-based practice

An instructional method or classroom strategy that research has consistently shown to improve student learning or development.

Educational psychology

The study of learning, development, instruction, and other psychological processes relevant to education.

Conceptual change

Revising an existing belief or understanding when new information shows that the previous understanding was inaccurate or incomplete.

Active learning

Learning that requires the learner to actively process, connect, apply, and practice information.

Meaningful learning

Learning that occurs when new information is connected to existing knowledge and experiences.

Elaboration

Adding meaning to new information by making connections, generating examples, drawing conclusions, or applying ideas.

Reflective practice

Examining one's own teaching, decisions, experiences, and results in order to improve future practice.

Action research

Research conducted by teachers or school personnel to investigate and address problems in their own classrooms or schools.

Quantitative research

Research that produces numerical data such as percentages, averages, test scores, or attendance rates.

Qualitative research

Research that produces nonnumeric information such as interviews, observations, written responses, or case studies.

Mixed-methods research

Research that combines quantitative and qualitative data.

Descriptive research

Research that describes what is happening or what a situation is like at a particular time.

Correlational research

Research that examines the relationship between two or more variables.

Positive correlation

A relationship in which two variables tend to increase together.

Negative correlation

A relationship in which one variable tends to increase while the other decreases.

Correlation coefficient

A statistic used to describe the direction and strength of a relationship between variables.

Experimental research

Research in which researchers manipulate variables to examine their effects on other variables.

Random assignment

Randomly placing participants into different experimental conditions.

Quasi-experimental research

Research that resembles an experiment but does not use full random assignment or complete experimental control.

Cause and effect

A relationship in which changes in one variable produce changes in another; strongest evidence comes from well-controlled experiments.

Development

Changes in a person's physical, cognitive, emotional, and social

Heredity

Characteristics passed genetically from parents to children.

Environment

Experiences, relationships, settings, and circumstances that influence development.

Bioecological systems theory

Bronfenbrenner's theory that development is influenced by multiple interconnected environmental systems.

Microsystem

The immediate settings in which a child directly participates, such as family, school, and friendships.

Mesosystem

The connections and interactions among a child's microsystems.

Exosystem

Settings that indirectly influence a child by affecting the child's microsystems.

Macrosystem

The broader cultural and societal environment surrounding a child.

Chronosystem

Changes in individuals and environmental systems over time.

Scheme

An organized way of thinking about or responding to something.

Assimilation

Interpreting a new experience using an existing scheme.

Accommodation

Modifying an existing scheme or creating a new scheme to account for new information.

Equilibrium

A state in which existing knowledge allows a person to understand and respond to experiences.

Disequilibrium

Mental discomfort that occurs when existing knowledge cannot explain a new experience.

Equilibration

The process of moving from equilibrium to disequilibrium and back toward equilibrium by modifying one's understanding.

Sensorimotor stage

Piaget's stage from approximately birth to age 2, when children learn primarily through sensory experiences and physical actions.

Object permanence

Understanding that an object continues to exist even when it cannot be seen.

Preoperational stage

Piaget's stage from approximately ages 2–7, characterized by symbolic thought but limitations in logical reasoning.

Egocentrism

Difficulty understanding that other people may have perspectives different from one's own.

Conservation

Understanding that certain physical properties remain the same despite changes in appearance.

Concrete operational stage

Piaget's stage from approximately ages 7–11, when children increasingly use logical reasoning about concrete situations.

Formal operational stage

Piaget's stage beginning around adolescence, involving increasingly abstract, hypothetical, and systematic thinking.

Cognitive development

Changes in how people think, reason, understand, and solve problems.

Vygotsky's theory

A theory emphasizing the role of social interaction, culture, and guidance from others in cognitive development.

Zone of proximal development (ZPD)

The range between what a learner can do independently and what the learner can accomplish with assistance.

Actual developmental level

The level of tasks a learner can successfully complete independently.

Scaffolding

Temporary assistance that helps a learner accomplish a task that they cannot yet complete independently.

More knowledgeable other

A person who has greater knowledge or skill in a particular area and can help another learner.

Temperament

Relatively stable differences in how individuals typically respond emotionally and behaviorally to situations.

Personality

An individual's characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving.

Goodness of fit

The degree to which a child's characteristics fit the expectations and demands of the environment.

Self-concept

A person's beliefs and perceptions about who they are.

Self-worth

A person's overall sense of their own value.

Self-esteem

A person's evaluation of their own value or worth.

Academic self-concept

A student's beliefs about their academic abilities and competence.

Peer relationships

Relationships with other children or adolescents of approximately the same age.

Peer group

A group of peers who interact with and influence one another.

Popularity

The degree to which an individual is liked or accepted by peers.

Social isolation

A lack of meaningful or positive relationships with peers.

Social cognition

The ability to understand and interpret other people's thoughts, feelings, intentions, and behaviors.

Theory of mind

Understanding that other people have their own thoughts, beliefs, feelings, perspectives, and knowledge.

Perspective taking

Considering a situation from another person's point of view.

Social cues

Information from words, facial expressions, body language, actions, and other behaviors that helps people understand others.

Relational aggression

Aggression intended to damage another person's relationships or social standing.

Proactive aggression

Intentional aggression used to achieve a goal.

Moral development

The development of beliefs and reasoning about right and wrong.

Moral reasoning

The reasoning people use when deciding what is right or wrong.

Prosocial behavior

Behavior intended to benefit or help other people.

Empathy

Understanding and responding appropriately to another person's feelings.

Induction

explaining how a person's behavior affects other people in order to encourage empathy and moral understanding.

Moral dilemma

A situation involving difficult moral choices that can require consideration of competing values or perspectives.

Preconventional morality

Kohlberg's level in which moral decisions are primarily based on personal consequences.

Obedience and punishment orientation

Kohlberg's first stage, in which behavior is guided largely by avoiding punishment.

Self-interest orientation

Kohlberg's second stage, in which decisions focus on personal needs, rewards, or exchanges.

Conventional morality

Kohlberg's level in which moral decisions are based on social expectations, relationships, rules, and social order

Good interpersonal relationships

Kohlberg's third stage, emphasizing approval and maintaining positive relationships.

Social-order orientation

Kohlberg's fourth stage, emphasizing laws, rules, and maintaining social order.

Postconventional morality

Kohlberg's level in which moral reasoning is based on broader principles, rights, and ethical considerations.

Social-contract orientation

Kohlberg's fifth stage, emphasizing social agreements and individual rights

Universal ethical principles

Kohlberg's highest proposed stage, involving moral decisions based on broad ethical principles

Effortful control

The ability to inhibit selfish or unproductive impulses and regulate behavior

Moral role model

A person whose moral and prosocial behavior provides an example for others.

Community service

Organized activities that provide opportunities for students to help other people or their communities