Chapter 2: Neural Basis for Cognition

What are the 3 main divisions of the brain?

1. Hindbrain

2. Midbrain

3. Forebrain

What is the cerebral cortex?

outer layer tissue of the forebrain

responsible for high level cognitive functions

The cerebral cortex is split into...

Two hemispheres: left and right

The ____ hemisphere is responsible for sensory stimulus from right side of body

Left

The ____ hemisphere is responsible for motor control of right side of body

Left

The ____ hemisphere is responsible speech, language, and comprehension

Left

The ____ hemisphere is responsible for analysis and calculations

Left

The ____ hemisphere is responsible for time and sequencing

Left

The ____ hemisphere is responsible for word and number recognition

Left

The ____ hemisphere is responsible for sensory stimulus from left side of body

Right

The ____ hemisphere is responsible for motor control of left side of body

Right

The ____ hemisphere is responsible for creativity such as writing and art

Right

The ____ hemisphere is responsible for spatial awareness

Right

The ____ hemisphere is responsible for context and perception

Right

The ____ hemisphere is responsible for face, place, and object recognition

Right

How do the halves of the brain communicate?

Through commissures

What are commissures?

Thick bundles of fibers that carry information between the two hemispheres

What is the corpus callosum?

The largest commissure

What are the four lobes of the brain?

frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal

Where is the occipital lobe located?

back of brain

What lobe contains the primary visual cortex?

occipital

What lobe is involved in visual perception and color orientation?

occipital

Where is the parietal lobe located?

Top/middle, behind the frontal lobe

What lobe contains the primary somatosensory cortex?

parietal

What lobe is involved in spatial location, touch, and sensory processing?

parietal

Where is the temporal lobe located?

bottom/sides of head

What lobe contains the auditory projection areas?

temporal

What lobe is involved in hearing and language?

temporal

Where is the frontal lobe located?

front of brain

What lobe contains the primary motor cortex?

frontal

What lobe contains the prefrontal cortex?

frontal

What lobe is involved in thinking, intelligence, and personality?

frontal

What is the prefrontal cortex?

A region of the brain that makes up about 30-33% of our brain's mass and is much larger and more developed in humans than in other species

What does the prefrontal cortex allow us to do?

Make complex decisions

What is a lesion?

tissue destruction

Damage to the prefrontal cortex results in ___

personality problems (Phineas Gage)

Damage to the left frontal lobe results in ___

language impairments (ex. Broca's Aphasia)

Damage to occipital lobe results in _____

visual impairments (ex. Blindsight)

Damage to temporal lobe results in ______

Auditory impairments (ex. amusia)

Damage to parietal lobe results in ________

spatial impairments (ex. somatoparaphrenia)

What is the cerebellum responsible for?

coordination of movement,

maintaining posture &

balance, and motor learning

The cerebellum is also known as...

'little brain" in latin

What is the basal ganglia involved in?

planning and producing

movement

What is the amygdala involved in?

emotional awareness

(especially fear) and

recognition of facial

expressions

What is the thalamus involved in?

relay station for

all sensory information

(EXCEPT olfaction)

What is the hypothalamus responsible for?

controls organ function (i.e., regulate body temp and blood press) and biological needs (thirst, hunger, sexual desire)

What is the hippocampus involved in?

formation and recall of memories

What is Capgras Syndrome?

disorder where individuals can recognize loved ones, but believe they are imposters (kidnapped? cloned?)

Explain intact cognitive appraisal in the context of Capgras Syndrome

rational recognition based on visual identification

Explain disrupted emotional appraisal in the context of Capgras Syndrome

the affective response based on familiarity

What two areas of the brain are damaged in Capgras Syndrome?

Temporal lobe: amygdala (emotional evaluator) which results in lack of emotional response

Frontal lobe: prefrontal cortex (reasoning center) which leads to illogical thoughts

Recognition involves what two separate mechanisms?

Factual and emotional knowledge

What are neurons?

cells that receive, integrate, and transmit information

into the nervous system

What are the structures that make up neurons?

Dendrites, cell body, axon, terminal buttons, synapse

What are dendrites and what do they do?

short, branch-like appendages that detect chemical signals from neighboring neurons (attached to cell body)

What is the cell body/SOMA and what does it do?

where the information received from the dendrites is collected and integrated (attached to axon)

What is the axon and what does it do?

the part of the neuron that carries the information away from the cell body (covered in myelin sheath)

What are terminal buttons and what do they do?

bulblike structures at the end of each axon that carry the neuron's message into the synapse

What is a synapse and what does it do?

chemical communication occurs between neurons (tiny gap between current neuron and next neuron)

What is the primary mechanism for transmitting electrical signals in neurons?

Ions, especially sodium (Na⁺) and potassium (K⁺).

What are ion channels?

areas along the membrane that allows ions to enter

What is special about ion channels?

Each ion channel matches a specific type of ion

What is resting potential?

the difference in electrical charge inside vs. outside the membrane

What does polarized mean?

Charge inside is more negative than charge outside of the neuron (-70 mv

What is the firing threshold?

membrane potential of about -55 mV at which an action potential is triggered

What causes a neuron to reach its firing threshold?

Signals that change the neuron's membrane potential, causing it to reach about -55 mV. Once threshold is reached, an action potential occurs.

What is action potential?

the electrical signal that passes along the axon

What is depolarization?

Charge inside neuron becomes more positive than charge outside of the neuron

What is the All or None Principle?

a neuron fires with the same

potency each time. It either fires or does not fire. Does not fire in a way that

can be considered weak or

strong. Light vs. dimmer switch

What is repolarization?

stage where membrane reverts back to its original electrical charge

What are neurotransmitters?

chemicals that are made in the axon and stored in vesicles

What is the difference between presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons?

Presynaptic = sends information

Postsynaptic = receives information

What are receptors?

specialized protein molecules located on the

dendrites of the postsynaptic membrane that respond to a specific neurotransmitter

How do neurotransmitters and receptors interact?

Like a lock and key. A specific neurotransmitter fits and activates its corresponding receptor.

What is reuptake?

neurotransmitters are taken back into the presynaptic terminal buttons, allowing them to be recycled.

What do SSRIs do to reuptake?

SSRIs postpone/block reuptake, leaving neurotransmitters in the synapse for longer.

What does a positron emission tomography (PET) scan do?

Measures how much glucose is being used by different areas of the brain at a given time.

What are the pros and cons of PET?

Pro: Highly sensitive and good at detecting small amounts of activity

Con: Exposure to low amount of radiation

What does the computerized axel topography (CAT) scan do?

uses X-rays to construct 3D images of the brain

What are the pros and cons of CAT scans?

Pro: Quick and easy way to view structures of the brain and look for abnormalities

Con: Not as accurate as more recent techniques

What does a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) do?

uses magnetic fields to construct 3D representations of brain tissue

What are pros and cons of the MRI?

Pro: Good for measuring structure of

the brain

Con: Very large/expensive and longer

process

What does a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) do?

measures changes in

blood-oxygen levels

What are pros and cons of the fMRI?

Pro: Good for measuring function and locating specific activation

Con: Very large and expensive equipment

What does a electroencephalogram (EEG) do?

measures electrical activity in the brain

What are the pros and cons of EEG?

Pro: Good for measuring general brain activation

Con: Not good for detecting location

of specific activation

What is the common problem of measuring brain function?

Relies on Correlational Data. It only focuses on the relationship between the imaging method and

diagnostic accuracy

What is the solution to the problem of measuring brain function?

Combine Techniques. Seek data from multiple sources (i.e., use EEG and fMRI data to see general brain activation AND exact location of activation)

What does a transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) do?

uses powerful magnetic fields to disrupt normal activity in specific brain regions

What are the pros and cons of TMS?

Pros: Good for simulating brain damage and is causational

Cons: Not good for locating activity and can only be used on areas close

to scalp

Which of the following is NOT one of the three main

divisions of the brain?

1. the hindbrain

2. the central brain

3. the midbrain

4. the forebrain

2

The prefrontal cortex makes up about what percentage of

the mass of the human brain?

1. 80%

2. 75%

3. 30%

4. 15%

3

Phineas Gage endured a tragic accident in which a rod went

through his face and head. As a result, he suffered damage

to the __________ which led to changes in his __________.

1. occipital lobe; vision

2. parietal lobe; spatial awareness

3. temporal lobe; hearing

4. frontal lobe; personality

4

Which subcortical structure of the brain is involved in the function of internal organs such as regulating body temperature and blood pressure?

1. hypothalamus

2. thalamus

3. basal ganglia

4. amygdala

1

Which statement best explains the underlying the mechanism of Capgras syndrome?

1. The frontal lobe creates false memories.

2. The temporal lobe cannot process faces, so cognitive

appraisal fails.

3. The amygdala fails to signal emotional familiarity despite intact cognitive appraisal.

4. Both the temporal lobe and amygdala are hyperactive.

3

Research on Capgras syndrome has indicated that recognition requires the evaluation of what two types of information?

1. visual and auditory

2. factual and emotional

3. visual and auditory

4. factual and auditory

2

Which of the following is the correct definition of a synapse?

1. the part of the neuron that carries information away from the cell body

2. the chemical that facilitates the uptake of neurotransmitters

3. the joint that connect sensory nerves with somatosensory nerves

4. the gap between the terminal buttons of one neuron and the dendrites of another neuron

4

What is the state of electrical charge when a neuron is at resting potential?

1. the inside of the neuron is more negative than the outside of the neuron

2. both the inside and outside of the neuron are of equal charge

3. the inside of the neuron is hyperpolarized

4. the inside of the neuron is more is more positive than outside the neuron

1

Chemical substances that carry messages directly from one

neuron to the next are called _______________.

1. agonists

2. neurotransmitters

3. enzymes

4. hormones

2

Which brain imaging techniques detects general electrical activity in the brain?

1. fMRI

2. EEG

3. TMS

4. all of the above

2