Edexcel A Level Politics Component 1

Legitimacy

The legal right to exercise power, for example, a government's right to rule following an election

Direct democracy

All individuals express their opinions themselves and not through representatives acting on their behalf. An example of direct democracy is a referendum

Representative democracy

A form of democracy in which an individual selects a person (or political party) to act on their behalf to exercise political choice

Pluralist democracy

A type of democracy in which a government makes decisions as a result of the interplay of various ideas and contrasting arguments from competing groups and organisations

Democratic deficit

A perceived deficiency in the way a particular democratic body works, especially in terms of accountability and control over policy-making

Participation crisis

A lack of engagement by a significant number of citizens to relate to the political process either by choosing not to vote or to join or become members of political parties or to offer themselves for public office

Franchise/suffrage

The ability, or right, to vote in public elections

Think tanks

A body of experts brought together to investigate and offer solution to economic, social or political issues

Lobbyists

Someone who is paid by clients to seek to influence government or parliament on their behalf, particularly when legislation is being considered

Old Labour (social democracy)

An unofficial name used to talk about the British Labour Party before it was changed by Tony Blair in the 1990s. Old Labour was thought to be more left wing, and supported the idea of increasing taxes to pay for public services such as education and health

New Labour (Third Way)

A revision of traditional 'Old Labour' values and ideas, involving a shift in emphasis from a heavy focus on the working class to a wider class base, and a less robust alliance with the trade unions

One Nation

A paternalistic approach adopted by Conservatives under the leadership of Benjamin Disraeli in the 19th century and continued by David Cameron and Theresa May in the 21st century, that the rich have an obligation to help the poor

New Right

An approach that combined:

- the thinking of neo-conservatives who wanted the state to take a more authoritarian approach to morality and law and order

- the thinking of neo-liberals who endorse the free market and the rolling back of the state in people's lives and businesses

Classical liberals

Early liberals who believed that individual freedom would best be achieved with the state playing a minimal role

Modern liberals

Liberals who believe that, under free-market capitalism, many individuals are not truly free, and that the state must help them in a more active way

Party systems

The way in which the political parties in a political system are grouped and structured

Left wing

Desiring change, reform and alteration to the way that society operates, including socialists, who are critical of the capitalist or free-market economy

Right wing

Supporting the status quo - for little or no change. Supporters of right-wing parties (often known as conservatives) stress the importance of order, stability, hierarchy and private property

First-past-the-post (FPTP)

An electoral system, sometimes known as a plurality system, where the candidate with the largest number of votes is elected. Victory is achieved by having at least one more vote than other contenders

Additional Member System (AMS)

A hybrid electoral system in which the voter makes two choices. Firstly, the voter selects a representative on a simple plurality (first past the post) system, then a second vote is apportioned to a party list for a second or 'additional representative'

Single Transferable Vote (STV)

An electoral system that allows voters to rank their preferences in numerical order. In order to win a seat, a candidate must obtain a quota. After the votes are cast, those candidates with the least votes are eliminated and their votes are transferred. Those candidates with excess votes above the quota also have their votes transferred

Supplementary Vote (SV)

A majoritarian electoral system that gives the voter two choices. If one candidate obtains more than 50% on the first vote, then they are elected. If no candidate attains this level, all but the top two candidates remain. Then the supplementary choices are redistributed to produce a single winner

Safe seat

Constituencies in which the sitting MP has a secure majority over the nearest rival, and is largely immune from swings in voting choice

Marginal seat

Seats held by a small majority, where a small swing to an opposition candidate can cause the seat to change hands

Minority government

A government that takes office but does not have a majority of seats in parliament, which makes passing legislation very difficult. After an indecisive general election, Labour leader Harold Wilson took office in March 1974 as leader of a minority government, although he was able to win a small majority in a further election in October

Coalition government

A government formed of more than one political party, normally accompanied by an agreement over policy options and offices of state (for example, the Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition of 2015)

Class dealignment

The process where individuals no longer identify themselves as belonging to a certain class and do not vote for the party they may be expected to, given their background

Partisan dealignment

The process where individuals no longer identify themselves on a long-term basis as being associated with a certain political party

Governing competency

The perceived ability of the governing party in office to manage the affairs of state effectively. It also applies to the way that voters regard the potential competency of an opposition party, if it were to win office

Disillusion

Disappointment from discovering something is not as good as one believed it to be; for example, having no confidence in politics and politicians as being able to solve issues and make a difference

Apathy

Lack of interest, enthusiasm, or concern; for example, not caring about political activity, which manifests itself in low turnout at elections and poor awareness of contemporary events

Manifesto

The document in which a political party details what actions and programmes it intends to introduce if it is successful in the next election - a set of promises for future action

Mandate

The authority to govern, which a government derives from an election victory. This means that it has the right to introduce its policies as stated in its manifesto. It also allows it too take decisions on other issues as they arise during its term of office, which could not have been foreseen when the manifesto was produced

Hierarchy

The conservative belief that society is naturally organised in fixed and unequal tiers, where one's social position or status is not based on individual ability

Authority

For conservatives, the idea that people in higher positions in society are best able to make decisions on behalf of other people or society as a whole; authority comes naturally from above and rests on an accepted obligation from below to obey

Change to conserve

The idea that society should adapt to changing circumstances by introducing moderate reforms, rather than reject change outright and risk rebellion or revolution

Atomism

The idea that society is made up of self-interested and self-sufficient individuals (also known as egoistical individualism). It can also describe increasing social breakdown and isolation

Pragmatism

Flexible approach to society with decisions made on the basis of what works

Tradition

Accumulated wisdom of past societies and a connection between the generations - creates stability and enhances humans' security

Human imperfection

The traditional conservative belief that humans are flawed in a number of ways which makes them incapable of making good decisions for themselves

Organic society/state

Society/state is more important than any individual parts - like a growing plant

Paternalism

Benign power exerted from above by the state, that governs in the interests of the people

Libertarianism (neo-liberalism)

Upholds liberty, seeking to maximise autonomy and free choice, mainly in the economy

Noblesse oblige

A French phrase that encapsulates the idea that nobility and privilege bring with them social responsibilities, notably the duty and obligation to care for those less fortunate

Anti-permissiveness

A rejection of permissiveness, which is the belief that people should make their own moral choices

Radical

A term used to describe beliefs, ideas or attitudes that favour drastic political, economic and social change

Laissez-faire

Minimal intervention in business and the state by the government

Empiricism

The idea that knowledge comes from real experience and not from abstract theories

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

- Order - an ordered society should balance the human need to lead a free life

- Human nature - humans are needy, vulnerable and easily led astray in attempts to understand the world around them

Edmund Burke (1729-1797)

- Change - political change should be undertaken with great caution and organically

- Tradition and empiricism - practices passed down by generations should be respected

Michael Oakeshott (1901-1990)

- Human imperfection - suggestion that society is unpredictable and humans are imperfect

- Pragmatism - belief that conservatism is about being pragmatic

Ayn Rand (1905-1982)

- Objectivism - this advocates the virtues of rational self-interest

- Freedom - this supports a pure, laissez-faire capitalist economy

Robert Nozick (1938-2002)

- Libertarianism - based on Kant's idea that individuals in society cannot be treated as a thing, or used against their will as a resource

- Self-ownership - individuals own their bodies, talents, abilities and labour

Minimal or 'night watchman' state

The idea that the role of the state must be restricted in order to preserve individual liberty

Foundational equality

Rights that all humans have by virtue of being born, which cannot be taken away

Formal equality

The idea that all individuals have the same legal and political rights in society

Equality of opportunity

The idea that all individuals should have equal chances in life to rise and fall

Social contract

An unofficial agreement shared by everyone in a society in which they give up some freedom in return for security

Meritocracy

A society organised on the basis that success is based on ability and hard work

Mechanistic theory

The theory that people created the state to serve them and act in their interests

Tolerance

A willingness to accept values, customs and beliefs with which one disagrees

Limited government

Where the role of government is limited by checks and balances, and a separation fo powers, because of the corrupting nature of power

Egoistical individualism

The idea that individual freedom is associated with self-interest and self-reliance

Developmental individualism

The view that individual freedom is linked to the desire to create a society in which each person can grow and flourish

Negative freedom

Freedom from interference by other people

Positive freedom

Having the capacity to act on one's free will and to realise personal potential

Laissez-faire capitalism

An economic system organised by the market, where goods are produced for exchange and profit, and wealth is privately owned

Keynesianism

An economic system that requires government involvement to stimulate the economy to achieve full employment and price stability

Harm principle

The idea that individuals should be free to do anything except harm other individuals

Enabling state

A larger state that helps individuals to achieve their potential and be free

John Locke (1632-1704)

- Social contract theory - society, state and government are based on a theoretical voluntary agreement

- Limited government - that government should be limited and based on consent from below

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)

- Reason - women are rational and independent beings capable of reason

- Formal equality - in order to be free, women should enjoy full civil liberties and be allowed to have a career

John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)

- Harm principle - that individuals should be free to do anything except harm other individuals

- Tolerance - belief that the popularity of a view does not necessarily make it correct

John Rawls (1921-2002)

- Theory of justice - opinion that society must be just and guarantee each citizen a life worth living

- The veil of ignorance - a hypothetical scenario where individuals, agree on the type of society they want from a position where they lack knowledge of their own position in society

Betty Friedan (1921-2006)

- Legal equality - women are as capable as men and that oppressive laws and social views must be overturned

- Equal opportunity - women are being held back from their potential because of the limited number of jobs that are 'acceptable' for women

Fraternity

Literally a 'brotherhood' - humans bound together by comradeship and a common outlook because they share the same basic nature and interests, while differences due to class, religion, nationality and ethnic background are far less significant

Cooperation

Working collectively to achieve mutual benefits

Capitalism

Wealth is privately owned and goods and services are produced for profit, as determined by market forces. The capitalist system has developed over the last five centuries to become the economic driving force of the modern global economy

Common ownership

The means of production is owned by the workers so that all are able to participate in its running and to benefit from the wealth of society

Communism

An economic and political system advocated by Karl Marx in which private ownership of the means of production is abolished in favour of common ownership. A classless society is established, production is based on human need, and the state withers away. Marxists argue that it is only under such a system that humans can realise their full potential

Collectivism

Collective human effort is both of greater practical value to the economy and moral value to society than the effort of individuals

Common humanity

Nature of humans as social creatures with a tendency to co-operation, sociability and rationality, and how the individual cannot be understood without reference to society, as human behaviour is socially determined

Equality

Fundamental value of socialism - different types of equality; outcome, absolute, opportunity and welfare

Social class

A group of people who have the same socioeconomic status

Workers' control

Complete or partial ownership fo an economic enterprise (such as a business or factory) by those employed there

Evolutionary socialism

A form of socialism advocating a parliamentary route to deliver a long-term, radical transformation in a gradual, piecemeal way through legal and peaceful means

Marxism

An ideological system, within socialism, that drew on the writings of Marx and Engels and has at its core a philosophy of history that explains why it is inevitable that capitalism will be replaced by communism

Revisionism

A revised political theory that modifies the established or traditional view. Here, revisionism refers to the critical reinterpretation of Marxism

Social justice

A commitment to greater equality and a just distribution of wealth in order to achieve a more equitable distribution of life chances within society

Revolutionary socialism

Socialism can be brought about only by the overthrow of the existing political and societal structures

Class consciousness

The self-understanding of social class that is a historical phenomenon, created out of collective struggle

Historical materialism

Marxist theory that the economic base (the economic system) forms the superstructure (culture, politics, law, ideology, religion, art and social consciousness)

Dialectic

A process of development that occurs through the conflict between two opposing forces

Karl Marx (1818-93) and Friedrich Engels (1820-95)

- The centrality of social class - the ideas of historical materialism, dialectic change and revolutionary class consciousness

- Humans as social beings - how nature is socially determined and how true common humanity can be expressed only under communism

Beatrice Webb (1858-1943)

- 'The inevitability of gradualness' - the gradualist parliamentary strategy for achieving evolutionary socialism

- The expansion of the state - that this, and not the overthrow of the state, is critical for delivering socialism

Rosa Luxembourg (1871-1919)

- Evolutionary socialism and revisionism - this is not possible as capitalism is based on an economic relationship of exploitation

- Struggle by the proletariat for reform and democracy - this creates the class consciousness necessary for the overthrow of the capitalist society and state

Anthony Crosland (1918-77)

- The inherent contradictions in capitalism - does not drive social change and managed capitalism can deliver social justice and equality

- State-managed capitalism - includes the mixed economy, full employment and universal social benefits

Anthony Giddens (1938-)

- The rejection of state intervention - acceptance of the free market in the economy, emphasis on equality of opportunity over equality, responsibility and community over class conflict

- The role of the state - is social investment in infrastructure and education not economic and social engineering