Set 6: Native American Civilizations, Maritime Empires, Challenges to State Power

Cultural Relativism

The principle of understanding a culture on its own terms without judging it by the standards of another culture.

Holmberg's Mistake

The erroneous belief that indigenous peoples of the Americas were primitive and lacked complex societies.

Maize

A staple crop of the Americas, also known as corn, significant for its role in indigenous agriculture.

Iron Metallurgy

The technology and processes involved in the extraction and processing of iron, which was notably lacking in certain pre-Columbian societies.

Obsidian

A naturally occurring volcanic glass used by ancient civilizations for tools and weapons.

Llamas and Alpacas

Domesticated South American animals used for transportation, wool, and meat.

Disease Immunity

The ability of certain populations to resist diseases due to previous exposure or genetic factors.

Chaco

An ancient Puebloan cultural center located in northwestern New Mexico, known for its monumental architecture.

Pueblo

A term referring to the communal dwellings of Native American tribes in the Southwestern United States.

Mesa Verde

The cliff dwellings at Mesa Verde, built from sandstone blocks and adobe mortar, demonstrate the architectural ingenuity of the Ancestral Puebloans. These structures, nestled within large alcoves in the cliff faces, provided natural protection from the elements and potential adversaries.

Dry Farming

An agricultural technique that relies on moisture conservation in arid regions.

Turquoise

A blue-green mineral valued for its use in jewelry and ornamentation by various indigenous cultures.

Mexica

The indigenous people of the Valley of Mexico, known for their empire and the city of Tenochtitlan.

Maya

An ancient civilization known for its hieroglyphic script, art, architecture, and advanced knowledge of astronomy.

Tenochtitlan

The capital city of the Mexica Empire, located on an island in Lake Texcoco.

Chinampas

A Mesoamerican agricultural technique involving the creation of floating gardens.

Human Sacrifice

The ritual offering of a human life to deities, practiced by several ancient civilizations, including the Mexica.

Bloodletting

A ritual practice among the Mexica involving the drawing of blood to appease gods and ensure agricultural fertility.

Mexica Tribute Lists

Records of tributes paid to the Mexica Empire by conquered peoples, often including goods and labor.

Cocoa

A key agricultural product derived from cacao beans, used to make chocolate, significant in Mesoamerican cultures.

Inca

The largest empire in pre-Columbian America, known for its advanced engineering and extensive road systems.

Temple of the Sun

A significant religious site in the Inca Empire, dedicated to Inti, the sun god.

Machu Picchu

An ancient Incan city located in the Andes Mountains, renowned for its archaeological significance.

Incan Roads

A vast network of roads built by the Inca to connect their empire, facilitating trade and military movement.

Terrace Farming

An agricultural practice of creating stepped fields on slopes to prevent soil erosion and maximize arable land.

Capacocha

An Incan ritual involving the sacrifice of children, often in response to natural disasters or significant events.

Quipu

A system of knotted strings used by the Incas for record-keeping and communication.

Mit'a

A labor tax system used by the Incas, requiring citizens to work on state projects for a certain period.

Flower Wars

Ritualized battles fought by the Mexica to capture prisoners for sacrifice.

Conquistadors

Spanish explorers and soldiers who led the conquest of the Americas in the 16th century.

Montezuma

The ninth ruler of the Mexica Empire, known for his encounter with Hernán Cortés.

Cortez

Hernán Cortés, the Spanish conquistador who led the expedition that caused the fall of the Mexica Empire.

The Columbian Exchange

The widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, and diseases between the Americas and the Old World.

Smallpox

A highly contagious disease that devastated indigenous populations in the Americas after European contact.

Mercantilism

An economic theory that emphasizes the role of the state in managing the economy, particularly through trade.

Prince Henry the Navigator

A Portuguese prince known for his patronage of exploration and navigation in the 15th century.

School of Navigation

An institution established by Prince Henry to promote maritime exploration and navigation techniques.

Caravel

A small, highly maneuverable sailing ship developed in the 15th century for exploration.

Fluyt

A type of sailing vessel developed in the Netherlands, designed for efficient cargo transport.

Christopher Columbus

An Italian explorer credited with the European discovery of the Americas in 1492.

Viceroy

A royal official who runs a country or province in the name of and as representative of the monarch.

West Indies

The islands located in the Caribbean Sea, significant for their role in colonial trade and plantation economies.

Cash Crops

Crops produced for commercial value rather than for use by the grower, such as sugar and tobacco.

Sugar, Tobacco, and Cotton

Key cash crops cultivated in the Americas that were integral to colonial economies.

Rice and Okra

Agricultural products introduced to the Americas, significant in the development of Southern cuisine.

Cassava

A root vegetable native to South America, important as a food source in tropical regions.

Indentured Servitude

A labor system where individuals worked for a specified number of years in exchange for passage to the New World.

Portuguese Slave Trade

The trade of enslaved Africans by the Portuguese, primarily to work on plantations in the Americas.

Triangular Trade

A historical trade route between Europe, Africa, and the Americas involving the exchange of goods and slaves.

Atlantic Slave Trade

The transatlantic transportation of enslaved Africans to the Americas from the 16th to the 19th centuries.

African Diaspora

The dispersion of Africans across the globe, particularly as a result of the slave trade.

Chattel Slavery

A form of slavery where individuals are treated as personal property that can be bought and sold.

Middle Passage

The sea route taken by slave ships from West Africa to the Americas.

Encomienda

A Spanish labor system that granted colonists the right to demand tribute and forced labor from indigenous peoples.

Haciendas

Large estates or plantations in Spanish America that produced agricultural goods.

Casta System

A hierarchical system of racial classification in colonial Spanish America.

Peninsulares

Spanish-born individuals residing in the colonies, often holding the highest social and political positions.

Potosi

A city in Bolivia known for its rich silver mines, which were a major source of wealth for the Spanish Empire.

Seven Years War

A global conflict fought between 1756 and 1763, involving many of the world's great powers.

American Revolution

The conflict between the thirteen American colonies and Great Britain from 1775 to 1783, leading to independence.

Loyalists

Colonists who remained loyal to the British crown during the American Revolution.

Treaty of Tordesillas

A 1494 agreement between Spain and Portugal dividing newly discovered lands outside Europe.

Dutch in Japan

Refers to the limited trade relations established between the Dutch and Japan during the Edo period.

Ferdinand Magellan

A Portuguese explorer known for leading the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe.

Circumnavigate

To travel completely around something, especially the Earth.

Conversion of Philippines

The process of converting the indigenous population of the Philippines to Christianity, primarily by Spanish missionaries.

Catholicism in the New World

The spread and establishment of the Catholic Church and its practices in the Americas following European colonization.

Sinking of the Spanish Armada

The defeat of the Spanish fleet in 1588, marking a turning point in naval power in favor of England.

Joint-Stock Company

A business entity where different stocks can be bought and owned by shareholders, facilitating colonial ventures.

Dutch East India Company

A chartered company established by the Netherlands to carry out trade in the East Indies.

East Indies

A term historically used to refer to the islands of Southeast Asia, particularly for trade purposes.

Banda Islands

An archipelago in Indonesia known for its nutmeg production during the spice trade.

Spice Monopoly

The control of the spice trade by a single entity or nation, often leading to economic dominance.

British East India Company

A joint-stock company that played a significant role in the trade and colonization of India.

Royal Absolutism

A political doctrine where a monarch holds supreme authority, often justified by divine right.

Divine Right of Kings

The doctrine that kings derive their authority from God, not from their subjects.

Magna Carta

A charter signed in 1215 that limited the powers of the English monarch and laid the foundation for modern democracy.

Queen Nzinga of Ndongo

A 17th-century queen known for her resistance against Portuguese colonialism in Angola.

Maroon Wars

Conflicts between colonial powers and escaped enslaved people who formed independent communities.

Pugachev Rebellion

An uprising in Russia during the 18th century led by Yemelyan Pugachev against the nobility.

Pueblo Revolt

A successful uprising of Pueblo people against Spanish colonizers in 1680.

King Philip's War

A conflict between Native American inhabitants of New England and English colonists from 1675 to 1678.

Fronde

A series of civil wars in France during the mid-17th century against royal authority.

King Louis XIV (Sun King)

The French monarch known for his absolute rule and the establishment of a centralized state.

Versailles

A royal residence built by King Louis XIV, symbolizing the absolute monarchy of the Ancien Régime.

Renaissance

A cultural movement in Europe from the 14th to the 17th century marked by a revival of classical learning and art.

Medici Family

A powerful banking family in Florence that played a significant role in the patronage of the arts during the Renaissance.

Scientific Revolution

A period of significant advancements in scientific thought and methodology from the 16th to the 18th century.

Sir Isaac Newton

An English mathematician and physicist known for formulating the laws of motion and universal gravitation.

Protestant Reformation

A religious movement in the 16th century that led to the establishment of Protestant churches and reform of the Catholic Church.

Catholic Counter-Reformation

The period of Catholic revival initiated in response to the Protestant Reformation, aimed at reforming the Church.

Jesuits

A religious order of the Catholic Church founded to spread the faith and engage in education and missionary work.

English Civil War

A series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists in England from 1642 to 1651.

Glorious Revolution

The overthrow of King James II of England in 1688, leading to the establishment of constitutional monarchy.

English Bill of Rights

An act passed in 1689 that limited the powers of the monarchy and outlined the rights of Parliament and individuals.

Constitutional Monarchy

A system of government in which a monarch shares power with a constitutionally organized government.

Limited Government

A political system where the powers of government are restricted by law, typically through a constitution.