INTRO TO SOCIOLOGY EXAM 1 REVIEW

Chapters 1 - 4

Sociology

The systematic study of human society, social behavior, and interaction.

The Sociological Perspective

Seeing the general in the particular—understanding how society influences individual lives.

Global Perspective

Viewing the world as interconnected and comparing societies globally.

High-Income Countries

Nations with highly industrialized economies, advanced technology, and high standards of living.

Middle-Income Countries

Nations with developing economies and moderate standards of living.

Low-Income Countries

Nations with little industrialization and widespread poverty.

Origins of Sociology

Developed during the Industrial Revolution as thinkers studied rapid social and economic change.

Positivism

Auguste Comte's idea that knowledge should be based on scientific observation.

Theory

A statement that explains how and why facts are related.

Theoretical Approach

A basic image of society that guides sociological thinking and research.

Social Structure

Stable patterns of social behavior that organize society.

Structural-Functional Approach

Sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote stability and order.

Social Functions

Consequences of any social pattern for the operation of society.

Manifest Functions

Intended and obvious results of a social pattern or action.

Latent Functions

Unintended or hidden consequences of a social pattern.

Social Dysfunction

Any social pattern that disrupts society's stability or operation.

Social Conflict Approach

Sees society as an arena of inequality that creates conflict and social change.

Gender Conflict Theory

Focuses on the inequality and power differences between men and women.

Feminism

A movement and theoretical perspective advocating for gender equality.

Race Conflict Theory

Examines inequality and power struggles between racial and ethnic groups.

Macro-Level Orientation

A broad focus on large-scale social structures and systems.

Micro-Level Orientation

A close-up focus on small-scale interactions and individual experiences.

Symbolic Interaction Approach

Sees society as the product of everyday interactions and shared meanings.

Stereotype

An oversimplified or distorted generalization about a group of people.

Science

A logical system that bases knowledge on direct, systematic observation.

Empirical Evidence

Information verified through direct observation or experience.

Positivist Sociology

Applies scientific methods to study society objectively and discover social laws.

Concept

A mental construct that represents some part of the world in simplified form.

Variable

A concept whose value changes from case to case.

Measurement

Determining the value of a variable in a specific case.

Operationalized Variable

A variable defined in measurable, observable terms for research.

Reliability

The consistency of measurement results.

Validity

The accuracy of a measurement—measuring what you intend to measure.

Cause and Effect

A relationship in which one variable causes change in another.

Independent Variable

The variable that causes or influences change.

Dependent Variable

The variable that is affected by the independent variable.

Correlation

A relationship where two or more variables change together.

Spurious Correlation

A false correlation caused by a third, hidden variable.

Control

Keeping variables constant to determine the true effect of one variable.

Objectivity

Maintaining personal neutrality in conducting research.

Replication

Repeating a study to verify or challenge earlier results.

Interpretive Sociology

Focuses on understanding the meanings people attach to their actions.

Critical Sociology

Focuses on inequality and the need for social change.

Gender and Ethics in Research

Researchers must avoid bias, ensure consent, and prevent harm to subjects.

Research Method

A systematic plan for conducting research and collecting data.

Experiment

A method to test cause-and-effect relationships under controlled conditions.

Hypothesis

A testable statement predicting how variables are related.

Hawthorne Effect

Subjects change their behavior because they know they are being observed.

Survey

A research method using questionnaires or interviews to gather data.

Population

The entire group of people being studied.

Sample

A smaller group selected from the population for study.

Questionnaire

A written series of questions used to gather information from respondents.

Interview

A research method where questions are asked directly to subjects.

Participant Observation

A method where the researcher observes and participates in group activities.

Inductive Logical Thought

Reasoning that builds general theories from specific observations.

Deductive Logical Thought

Reasoning that starts with a general theory and tests it with specific data.

Volunteer Bias (Weiderman)

Occurs when people who volunteer for studies differ from those who do not, affecting results.

Culture

The shared values, beliefs, behaviors, and material objects that make up a society's way of life.

Material Culture

The physical objects created and used by members of a society.

Nonmaterial Culture

The ideas, beliefs, and values of a society.

Culture Shock

Personal disorientation when experiencing an unfamiliar culture.

Symbol

Anything that carries a meaning recognized by people who share a culture.

Language

A system of symbols used for communication.

Cultural Transmission

The process by which culture is passed from one generation to the next.

Sapir-Whorf Thesis

The idea that language shapes how people see and understand the world.

Values

Culturally defined standards of what is good, desirable, and proper.

Beliefs

Specific statements that people hold to be true.

Norms

Rules and expectations by which a society guides its members' behavior.

Mores

Norms with great moral significance; violations are serious.

Folkways

Norms for casual, everyday interactions.

Social Control

Attempts by society to regulate people's thoughts and behavior.

Technology

Knowledge and tools that people use to shape their world.

Social Artifacts

Objects or products created by humans that reflect cultural meaning.

High Culture

Cultural patterns associated with society's elite.

Popular Culture

Cultural patterns that are widespread among a society's population.

Subculture

A group that shares different values or lifestyles within a larger culture.

Counterculture

Cultural patterns that oppose those widely accepted in society.

Multiculturalism

A perspective recognizing the cultural diversity of a society and promoting equality of traditions.

Eurocentrism

Viewing the world from a European cultural standpoint.

Afrocentrism

Emphasizing African cultural patterns and contributions.

Cultural Integration

The close relationships among various elements of a cultural system.

Cultural Change

Transformation of culture through invention, discovery, and diffusion.

Culture Lag

The delay in cultural adjustment to changing social conditions or technology.

Ethnocentrism

Judging another culture by the standards of one's own culture.

Cultural Relativism

Evaluating a culture by its own standards rather than judging it.

Cultural Universals

Traits or practices found in every known culture (like family or language).

Structural-Functional Theory of Culture

Sees culture as a system that works to meet human needs and promote stability.

Social-Conflict Theory of Culture

Sees culture as a system that benefits some groups at the expense of others.

Feminist Theory of Culture

Examines how culture reflects and reinforces gender inequality.

Sociobiology

Studies how human behavior and culture are affected by biological evolution.

"Body Ritual among the Nacirema" (Miner)

A satirical article showing how outsider perspectives can make familiar practices seem strange, illustrating ethnocentrism.

Gerhard Lenski

Developed the theory of sociocultural evolution, linking social change to technology.

Sociocultural Evolution

The process of change resulting from technological development.

Hunting and Gathering Societies

Small, nomadic groups relying on natural food sources.

Horticultural Societies

Societies that use hand tools to grow crops.

Pastoral Societies

Societies that domesticate animals for food and resources.

Agricultural Societies

Societies that use plows and large-scale farming; create surpluses and social inequality.

Industrialism

Production of goods using machinery and energy sources; leads to urbanization.

Postindustrialism

An economy based on information, technology, and services rather than manufacturing.

Karl Marx

Viewed society through class conflict between capitalists and workers.