AP Euro - Unit Study Guide

Covers 2nd Half of Chapter 13, Chapter 14, Chapter 15

Methods to consolidate rule in Russia, France, and Spain

1. promote religious unity (not making the Church dominant)

2. promote ethnic/political unity

3. Weaken the power of the nobility

4. centralize control of taxation

5. strong military & bureaucracy

Major obstacles of monarchies in southeastern Europe

1. Ottoman Turks occupied land/conquered it

2. No Renaissance experienced Europe (rural)

3. Church resistance against a strengthening monarchy

4. Lack of strong authority

5. small merchant class compared to middle class

Political Power in Poland

Landed aristocracy wielded the most power and the Polish monarch wrestled power from them.

Charles V & Carlos I’s empire included what territories in the mid-16th century?

Charles V:

• Venice

• Austria

• Netherlands

Carlos I:

• South America (New Granada/Peru)

• Mexico (aka New Spain)

• Phillippines

Major issues behind European wars in the 16th/17th centuries

Princes and monarchs argue over religious and political issues. More arguments arise from government centralization (decentralization = more princely power)

Peace of Augsburg

German Princes are able to choose whether their lands could be Catholic or Lutheran

Edict of Nantes provisions

1. Negotiated by Henri IV, and it stated that Huguenots will be respected by Catholics in cities/regions governed by a prince observing the Huguenot faith

2. protection of Protestants from the Inquisition

3. religious toleration & civil rights

Results of the Edict of Nantes:

1. Huguenots were very wealthy (7-15%) — disproportionate power

2. Peace for religious freedom. Country weakened because of religious disunity. 

3. Ended French Religious Wars

30 Years’ War’s Effect on the Germans

1/3 of the Germans died because it was mainly fought in German lands. (potato saved some people)

Significant Factor in the Rise of National States:

Rise & support of the middle class/merchant, professional class

Louis XIV’s policies, values, and ideas.

1. Policies started by Richelieu, continued by Mazarin

2. Created/grew a bureaucratic state

3. Create a new central government at Versailles

4. Promoted French culture, art, goods

5. Adopted mercantilist policies of Colbert

6. France must reduce power of Habsburg and grow France to natural boundaries

7. governed w/o consent of parliament/legislature

Consequences of Louis XIV’s desire to reduce power of the Habsburgs and expand France

Expansion of avoidable, expensive wars

Cardinal Richelieu’s goals

1. Destroy or weaken the power of Huguenot princes and other nobles

2. Expand France’s glory

3. Suppress the Habsburgs

4. Improve the French economy

Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden’s role in Europe

1. Led the Protestant coalition against Catholic Europe (mostly led by the Habsburgs)

2. Helped start the military revolution & expand Swedish power

Significance of Mikhail Romanov’s election in 1613 as the new czar by the boyar council

1. ended the Rurik dynasty

2. famine = 1/3 of the Russians died

3. Polish-Lithuanians occupied portions of Russia

4. “time of troubles”

5. begins new dynasty

States that blocked Russian expansion during the 16th1/7th centuries

1. Sweden

2. Poland - Lithuania

3. Ottoman Empire

Elizabeth I’s contribution to religious controversy in England

• reestablished independence of English Church from Rome (like Henry VIII in 1534)

• Act of Uniformity

France supports Protestant rebels against the Catholics in the HRE because?

France wanted to weaken and fragment the Holy Roman Empire (Habsburg-led); politically advantageous

Edict of Nantes Revocation Results

• Huguenots leave France, which weakens the French economy

• Religious violence

Trade Cities and Ports succeeded because?

A non-absolutist approach to trade (capitalism > mercantilism)

Trade Cities Shifts:

Mediterranean region used to be the center of power/trade. Power shifts to the Atlantic coast, as better navigation and a better navy was developed. It spurred global trade

School of Navigation

• School of Sagres: existed in the Age of Discovery

• engaged astronomers, cartographers, mathematicians, and instrument makers to teach the art of ocean exploration

• founded by Prince Henry, the Navigator

• School of Sagres: existence is disputed (just note)

Christopher Columbus:

Italian explorer who sailed for Spain and made 4 voyages across the Atlantic between 1492 & 1504. He made contact with the natives and established contact with the “New World”. The Columbian Exchange begins.

Sir Francis Drake

An English privateer who was famous for his circumnavigation of the globe between 1577 and 1580, which made him the first Englishman to complete the journey. He was also famed for raiding Spanish ports and ships in the Americas, and played a key role in defeating the Spanish Armada in 1588. He expanded the Royal Navy.

Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain

• unified Spain through marriage of Castile and Aragon

• Completed the Reconquista conquering Granada

• Sponsored Columbus in 1492

• Established Spanish Inquisition

• Expelled Jews & Muslims

Bartolome de Las Casas

• championed the rights of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas during the colonial period.

• famous for renouncing his own participation in the exploitative system of encomienda,

• vocal critic of the violence committed by Spanish conquistadors

• wrote extensively to expose their atrocities in works like A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies.

• considered major influence on early human rights

Ferdinand Magellan

• Portuguese, then Spanish explorer

• discovered Strait of Magellan

• First expedition to circumnavigate the globe

Vasco de Gama

• first European expedition to India

• maritime route to Africa (1497-1499)

• opened direct sea trade (Age of Discovery)

Henry the Navigator

• Financed and organized voyages that pushed European knowledge

• Portuguese Prince

• Explored African coast; discovered Atlantic islands (Madeira/Azores/Cape Bojador)

• Developed new ships, maps, navigational instruments

• Acquired wealth, spread Christianity, bypass Muslims

• laid groundwork for global empire + slave trade

Amerigo Vespucci

• identified Americas as a new continent

• exploration of South America = new landmass, not Asia

• namesake of Americas

Spain profits from which colonial resources?

• precious metals (Gold & Silver)

• sugar

what was the encomienda based on?

the feudal manor

encomienda

a grant by the Spanish Crown to a colonist in America conferring the right to demand tribute and forced labor from the Indigenous inhabitants of an area.

Social/Racial Classes found in Spanish America

• Peninsulares

• Creoles

• Mulattos

• Mestizos

• Negros

• Indios

Peninsulares

Peninsulares: Spaniards born in Spain who held the highest status and top political power in the colonies.

Creoles

Creoles: Spaniards born in the Americas who were wealthy and educated but denied the highest positions.

Mestizos

Mestizos: People of mixed Spanish and Indigenous ancestry who held a middle social status.

Mulattos

Mulattos: People of mixed Spanish and African ancestry who occupied a lower-middle position in society.

Negros

Negros: People of African descent, often enslaved, who faced severe discrimination and limited rights.

Indios

Indios: Indigenous peoples of the Americas who were heavily taxed and forced into labor under Spanish rule.

Treaty of Tordesillas

• pope-negotiated

• Spain receives all of the Americas (excluding Brazil)

• Portugal gets Brazil, Africa, Asian, and East Indies trade

• A new treaty is required because the Americas are NOT Asia. 

Factors that prompted the Portuguese to explore overseas and establish colonies 

• Spread Christianity

• African Gold

• Learn seafaring science from the Muslims and Chinese

• Wanted wealth

• establish direct overseas routes to Asia & Japan

European motivation to find a sea route to the Indies

Bypass Venice and the Ottomans because it was expensive to travel there (taxes)

What prompted the importation of African labor?

• cheap, exploitable workforce

• rise of plantations

• decline of native populations

• high economic success

Columbian Exchange

The Columbian Exchange was the widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, and diseases between the Americas, Europe, and Africa after Christopher Columbus's 1492 voyage

Henri IV, Elizabeth I, and James I were all?

politiques

“Time of Troubles”

• end of Rurik Dynasty

• Famine

• Polish-Luthianians occupy Russia

Homogenocene

A term describing the modern era in which global trade, migration, and human activity make ecosystems more similar worldwide. It highlights the loss of biodiversity and the spread of the same crops, animals, and species everywhere. (widespread mixing)

Mercantilism

An economic system where nations seek to increase wealth by exporting more than they import and accumulating precious metals. It emphasizes government control and colonies providing raw materials so the mother country can be self-sufficient.

Middle Passage

The brutal leg of the Atlantic slave trade in which enslaved Africans were transported across the ocean to the Americas under horrific conditions. High mortality rates and inhumane treatment defined this journey.

Triangular Trade

A three-part Atlantic trading system in which Europe sent goods to Africa, Africa sent enslaved people to the Americas, and the Americas shipped raw materials back to Europe. Each leg supported the others, creating a continuous trade loop.

Factors contributing to the rise of the Dutch Republic in the 17th Century

1. Amsterdam was the economic capital of Europe (Spanish and Dutch were fighting)

2. Amsterdam banking (financial innovation)

3. religious toleration

4. colonial possessions

5. leadership of William of Orange

6. political arrangement made with the Estates General

7. advanced shipbuilding (& good navy)

8. dominance in trade/shipping

Jean Baptiste Colbert’s mercantilist policies

1. External tariffs

2. Creation of the French East India Company

3. Improvement of roads, bridges, ports, etc

4. Creation of new industries

5. Creation of commercial codes that applied to the whole country

British Navigation Acts impacts

• colonies become economically dependent to Britain

• Dutch see this as a threat to commercial activities

• targeted Dutch shipping by declaring only English ships could enter

• banned foreigners from fishing

Stuart Monarchs v. Parliament conflict

Stuarts didn’t want to recognize Parliament’s authority to consent to taxation (leads to English Civil War)

Charles I

King of England whose conflicts with Parliament over power, religion, and taxation sparked the English Civil War; he was defeated, tried, and executed in 1649.

Sir William Waller

A leading Parliamentarian general who commanded forces in several key early battles; he was respected for his skill but often clashed with other commanders.

OIiver Cromwell

A powerful Parliamentarian military leader who built the New Model Army, won the war, and eventually ruled as Lord Protector during the Commonwealth, effectively acting as a military dictator.

John Pym

A prominent Parliamentary leader who organized resistance against Charles I, pushed for reforms limiting royal authority, and helped set the political groundwork for the Civil War.

Charles I’s execution marked the first time…

Parliament voted on the execution of a monarch

Cromwell’s policies that triggered dissent and opposition

1. Strict Puritan social policies (alienated Anglicans)

2. Cruelly treated Irish Catholic dissenters

3. Dissolved the Rump Parliament

Charles II did what that caused uproar?

Admired Roman Catholicism and Louis XIV, as well as marrying a Catholic princess.

James II’s ascension to the throne led to an English constitutional crisis. How?

James II sparked a constitutional crisis by using his “dispensing power” to suspend laws—especially those barring Catholics from office—and by placing Catholics in key military and government positions. When he produced a Catholic heir in 1688, Parliament feared a permanent Catholic absolutist dynasty, prompting them to intervene. (England was Protestant)

Magna Carta (1215)

A charter limiting King John’s power and establishing that even the monarch must follow the law; it is significant for laying the foundation of constitutional government in England

Act of Supremacy (1534)

A law making Henry VIII the Supreme Head of the Church of England, breaking from the Pope’s authority; it is significant for starting the English Reformation and giving the king control over religion.

Act of Uniformity, 1559

Elizabeth recognizes one Church, the Anglican Church, in England.

Petition of Right

A document by Parliament limiting Charles I’s authority to tax, imprison, or quarter troops without consent; it is significant for asserting the rule of law over the king.

Long Parliament (1640-1660)

The English Parliament that resisted Charles I’s attempts at absolute rule and initiated reforms; it is significant for leading to the English Civil War.

Rump Parliament (1648-1653)

The remnant of Parliament after Pride’s Purge (dissenters removed) that tried and executed Charles I; it is significant for abolishing the monarchy and establishing the Commonwealth. (then abolished by Cromwell)

Solemn League and Covenant, 1643

An agreement between the English Parliamentarians and Scottish Covenanters to unite against the king and promote Presbyterianism; it is significant for securing Scottish support in the Civil War.

Declaration of Indulgence, 1672

A royal decree by Charles II suspending laws against Catholics and dissenters; it is significant for challenging Parliament’s authority over religion. (freedom to worship, removal of penalties)

Test Act, 1673

A law requiring public officials to take Anglican communion and swear against transubstantiation; it is significant for restricting Catholics from holding office.

English Bill of Rights, 1688 (Glorious Revolution)

A law limiting the monarch’s power and guaranteeing Parliament’s authority; it is significant for establishing a constitutional, parliamentary monarchy under William and Mary. Limited monarchy is now firmly established (parliamentary) & William & Mary MUST accept. 

Toleration Act, 1689

A law granting limited religious freedom to Protestant dissenters; it is significant for promoting religious tolerance while keeping the Church of England dominant.

Act of Settlement, 1701

A law stating that only Anglicans could inherit the English throne; it is significant for securing a Protestant succession and limiting Catholic influence

Peace of Augsburg, 1555:

An agreement allowing German princes to choose the religion of their territories—Catholic or Lutheran (Evangelical); it is significant for temporarily ending religious conflict in the Holy Roman Empire and establishing the principle of “cuius regio, eius religio” (whose realm, his religion).

Peace of the Pyrenees, 1659:

A treaty between France and Spain ending the Franco-Spanish War; it is significant for marking the rise of France as Europe’s dominant power and redrawing borders in favor of France.

Peace of Westphalia, 1648

A series of treaties ending the Thirty Years’ War and the Eighty Years’ War; it is significant for recognizing state sovereignty, expanding territorial control, and establishing a new framework for European diplomacy.

Treaty of Madrid, 1670

An agreement between England and Spain in which Spain recognized English control over certain Caribbean territories; it is significant for strengthening English colonial and trade claims in the Americas.

Peace of Nimwegen, 1678:

A series of treaties ending conflicts between France and a coalition including the Dutch Republic, Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire; it is significant for confirming French territorial gains and maintaining European balance of power.

Treaty of Ryswick, 1697:

The treaty ending the Nine Years’ War between France and the Grand Alliance; it is significant for restoring prewar borders and temporarily halting French expansion under Louis XIV.

Peace of Utrecht and Rastatt, 1713–1714

Treaties ending the War of the Spanish Succession; they are significant for redistributing European territories, recognizing the Bourbon king in Spain but preventing union with France, and establishing Britain as a major colonial power.

Peace of Nystadt, 1721:

A treaty ending the Great Northern War between Russia and Sweden; it is significant for establishing Russia as a major European power and ceding Swedish territories in the Baltic to Russia.

Peace of Paris, 1763:

The treaty ending the Seven Years’ War (French and Indian War in North America); it is significant for redrawing global colonial boundaries, giving Britain control of Canada and Florida, France ceding Louisiana to Spain, and marking Britain’s rise as the dominant colonial power.