Chapter 10: intelligence

Intelligence

Intelligence

A multifaceted concept encompassing problem-solving, reasoning, memory, creativity, and emotional intelligence.

IQ and Standardized Testing

Intelligence quotient tests measure cognitive abilities but may not capture practical or emotional intelligence fully.

Average IQ Score

Population average IQ is 100 with a standard deviation of 15, impacting self-esteem and confidence differently in individuals.

Consequences of Knowing IQ Score

Knowing IQ scores can affect self-perception positively or negatively, influencing confidence and feelings of adequacy.

Representation in Literature

Literature like "Flowers for Algernon" explores intelligence's impact on opportunities, identity, and societal treatment.

Causes of Intellectual Disabilities

Intellectual disabilities can result from factors like fetal alcohol syndrome, birth trauma, genetic differences, and chromosomal conditions.

Early Intelligence Measurement

Assessment of intelligence before written tests using physiological measures, lacking psychometric validity and reliability.

Written Forms for Intelligence

Introduction of measuring intelligence through written tests in the early 1900s.

Sir Francis Galton

Psychologist and statistician in the late 1800s, focused on measuring varied abilities using empirical methods.

General Cognitive Ability (g)

Galton's hypothesis that cognitive ability is hereditary and related to sensory usage.

Equating Physical and Mental Measures

Galton's attempt to link physical body measures with mental assessment.

Galton's Professions and Interests

Psychologist, statistician, and polymath with a keen interest in measuring human abilities.

Mean

The average of all the results obtained in a dataset.

Median

The middle score in a dataset when arranged in numerical order.

Mode

The most commonly occurring score in a dataset.

Normal distribution

A bell-shaped curve where the mean, median, and mode have the same value.

Variability

The degree of spread or dispersion of scores around the mean in a dataset, indicating how much individual data points differ from the average.

Standard Deviation

A statistical measure quantifying the variation or dispersion of data values; low SD means data points are close to the mean, high SD means data points are spread out.

Normal Distribution in Biology

Many biological characteristics like height, weight, and intelligence scores tend to follow a normal distribution in the general population.

Galton's Hypothesis

Sir Francis Galton's late 1800s hypothesis that intelligence, like other biological characteristics, is biologically innate due to its normal distribution pattern.

Flaw in Logic

Galton's logical fallacy of equating the normal distribution of intelligence to innate biological characteristics like height, assuming they share the same biological nature.

Analogy for Flawed Logic

Galton's reasoning likened to saying all mammals are cats because all cats are mammals, illustrating a categorical error in his conclusion.

Statistical Analysis

Understanding normal distributions of traits like intelligence aids in developing tests and measures in psychology.

Biological vs

While some traits are biologically determined, others like intelligence involve genetic, environmental, and educational factors, prompting further research into differentiating these influences.

Binet and Simon's Intelligence Test

Developed in 1904 in France to assess students' intellectual capabilities for educational placements.

Concept of Intelligence by Binet and Simon

Defined as the ability to judge, comprehend, and reason well.

Fundamental Abilities of Intelligence

Direction (knowing what and how to do), Adaptation (devising strategies and monitoring progress), Criticism (evaluating reasoning).

Binet-Simon Scale Development

Tasks designed for different age levels to reflect average child capabilities, from physical responses to cognitive challenges.

Mental Age Concept

Children's performance compared to age-specific standards, higher performance indicating a higher mental age and intelligence.

Standardization of Intelligence Testing

Binet and Simon's methodology allowed consistent measurement across contexts for research and comparison.

Legacy of Binet and Simon

Their work influenced future intelligence tests like the Stanford-Binet test in the United States.

Binet-Simon Test

Originally designed to inform student placement in educational programs, impacting academic paths and future opportunities.

Misuse of IQ Tests

Intelligence testing misused to justify discriminatory practices like eugenics and systemic racism.

Eugenics

Belief in improving human populations through controlled breeding for desirable traits, advocating for reproductive control among different social groups.

Social Darwinism

Ideological application of Darwin's theory to human societies, justifying racial and class superiority theories.

Bias in Intelligence Testing

Terman's approach led to language and cultural bias disadvantaging non-English speakers and reinforcing stereotypes.

Legislation Influenced by Eugenic Ideals

Policies enacted in the U.S. and Canada included forced sterilizations and restrictive reproductive laws, impacting Nazi racial policies.

Assumptions in Early Intelligence Testing

Lewis Terman believed intelligence tests measured innate intelligence independently of external factors like language or cultural knowledge.

Impact of Socioeconomic Status on IQ Testing

Socioeconomic status influences IQ test performance through educational opportunities and cultural bias, affecting scores.

Continued Debates on Racial Differences in IQ

Despite efforts to create neutral tests, debates persist on racial IQ differences, with some studies showing small variances even with culturally fair tests.

Stereotype Threat and Intelligence Testing

Stereotype threat theory posits that anxiety from confirming negative stereotypes can hinder test performance, as shown by Claude Steele and others.

Mindset and Intelligence

Carol Dweck's research distinguishes fixed and malleable intelligence mindsets, affecting individuals' willingness to tackle challenges and their resilience to failure.

Long-term Interventions and Intelligence

Mindfulness practices have been linked to improved cognitive functions like working memory and attention, potentially mitigating age-related cognitive decline.

Cultural and Scientific Context of Racial Groupings

Scholars argue that racial categories lack genetic basis and are socially constructed, challenging their scientific validity.

Charles Spearman

Psychologist (1863-1945) known for proposing the concept of General Cognitive Ability ("g") based on positive correlations among schoolchildren's grades in different subjects.

General Cognitive Ability ("g")

Spearman's proposed underlying factor influencing performance across various domains, where excelling in one area suggests proficiency in others due to a common ability.

Factor Analysis

Statistical method grouping highly correlated variables into clusters (factors) to explore interrelationships and identify underlying factors like "g" explaining correlations among cognitive tasks.

Component Analysis

Technique, like principal component analysis (PCA), focusing on reducing dataset dimensionality by summarizing information with fewer variables, emphasizing total variance in the data.

Significance of Spearman's Work

Spearman's identification of "g" and use of factor analysis have influenced how intelligence is measured, impacting educational psychology and cognitive assessment, and advancing statistical techniques in psychology and social sciences.

Charles Spearman

Proposed the concept of a general factor of intelligence known as "g," representing higher-order cognitive ability.

Two Levels of Intelligence

Intelligence consists of a general intelligence (g) and specific abilities (s) that are domain-specific.

Verbal Intelligence

Specific ability measuring performance on verbal tasks, while general intelligence (g) reflects problem-solving across contexts.

Predictive Power

General intelligence (g) predicts outcomes like academic performance, career success, and mortality rates.

Explanations of g

Spearman suggested g arises from apprehension of experience, education of relations, and mental energy in the cortex.

Louis Thurstone

Proposed seven distinct primary mental abilities, challenging Spearman's single general intelligence factor.

Factors

Thurstone's primary mental abilities include word fluency, verbal comprehension, numeric abilities, spatial visualization, memory, perceptual speed, and reasoning.

Factor Analysis

Thurstone used factor analysis to identify the seven primary mental abilities, suggesting intelligence is multidimensional.

Significance

Spearman's g theory established intelligence as hierarchical, while Thurstone's theory offered a multifaceted view.

Criticisms

Spearman's g oversimplifies intelligence, Thurstone's theory may overlook a general cognitive capacity influencing performance.

Raymond Cattell's Hierarchical Model of Intelligence

A model that reconciles Spearman's theory of general intelligence with Thurstone's theory of primary mental abilities by introducing a hierarchical structure of intelligence.

Fluid Intelligence (Gf)

The ability to think flexibly and handle complex and novel situations, involving problem-solving abilities not primarily based on pre-existing knowledge.

Crystallized Intelligence (Gc)

The ability to solve problems by applying previously accumulated knowledge, involving the application of learned information and skills to new situations.

Developmental Relationship

The initial correlation between fluid and crystallized intelligence in early development, diverging in adulthood with fluid intelligence declining more rapidly than crystallized intelligence.

The Wisdom Paradox

Neuropsychologist Elkhonon Goldberg's proposal that increasing reliance on pattern recognition and effortless problem-solving as individuals age helps explain wisdom despite cognitive decline in some areas.

Significance and Criticisms of Cattell's Model

Provides a framework for understanding different aspects of intelligence, acknowledging problem-solving abilities and accumulated knowledge, but criticized for oversimplifying cognitive functioning and overlooking other factors influencing intelligence.

Emotional Intelligence (EI)

A concept proposed by Mayer and colleagues, popularized by Daniel Goleman, consisting of perceiving, using, understanding, and managing emotions.

Components of EI

EI includes the abilities to perceive emotions accurately, use emotions for thinking, understand emotions, and manage emotions effectively.

Concepts in EI

Involves crucial concepts like sympathy and empathy for effective social interactions.

Assessment of EI

Involves developing valid measures to assess emotional aptitude.

Debate on EI as Intelligence

Scholars debate whether EI is a distinct form of intelligence or a measure of the personality trait "social effectiveness."

Significance of EI in Behavior

Emphasizes the role of assumptions, emotional intelligence, and cognition in influencing behavior.

Study by Damasio

Damasio's research showed that emotions are crucial for effective decision-making, even in individuals with intact traditional measures of intelligence.