Sociology Exam Study Guide

Introduction to Sociology

conflict theory

(1) a theory that looks at society as a competition for limited resources

(2) a theory that examines social and economic factors as the causes of criminal deviance

functionalism

a theoretical approach that sees society as a structure with interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of individuals that make up that society

symbolic interactionism

a theoretical perspective through which scholars examine the relationship of individuals within their society by studying their communication (language and symbols)

crime

a behavior that violates official law and is punishable through formal sanctions

corporate crime

crime committed by white-collar workers in a business environment

hate crimes

attacks based on a person’s race, religion, or other characteristics

nonviolent crimes

crimes that involve the destruction or theft of property, but do not use force or the threat of force

victimless crime

activities against the law, but that do not result in injury to any individual other than the person who engages in them

street crime

crime committed by average people against other people or organizations, usually in public spaces

intersection theory

theory that suggests we cannot separate the effects of race, class, gender, sexual orientation, and other attributes

inner (permanent): national origin, race/ethnicity, mental/physical ability, sexual orientation, age, gender, gender identity or expression

outer (may change often): work experience, education, appearance, religion, income, language and communication, organizational role, family, political belief

social stratification

a socioeconomic system that divides society’s members into categories ranking from high to low, based on things like wealth, power, and prestige; inequality

caste system

a system in which people are born into a social standing that they will retain their entire lives

global feminization of poverty

a pattern that occurs when women bear a disproportionate percentage of the burden of poverty

intergenerational mobility

a difference in social class between different generations of a family

meritocracy

(1) a bureaucracy where membership and advancement is based on merit — proven and documented skills
(2) an ideal system in which personal effort — or merit — determines social standing

differential association theory

a theory that states individuals learn deviant behavior from those close to them who provide models of and opportunities for deviance

labeling theory

the ascribing of a deviant behavior to another person by members of society

deviance

a violation of contextual, cultural, or social norms

13th amendment

abolished slavery and involuntary servitude

white privilege

the societal privilege that benefits white people, or those perceived to be white over non-white people in some societies, including the u.s.

scapegoat theory

a theory that suggests that the dominant group will displace its unfocused aggression onto a subordinate group

socialization

the process wherein people come to understand societal norms and expectations, to accept society’s beliefs, and to be aware of societal values

gender stereotyping

a preconceived idea that assigns characteristics and roles to individuals based on their sex, often in a rigid and generalized way

sex

a term that denotes the presence of physical or physiological differences between males and females

gender

a term that refers to social or cultural distinctions of behaviors that are considered male or female

homophobia

an extreme or irrational aversion to gay, lesbian, bisexual, or all lgbtq people, which often manifests as prejudice and bias

sexual orientation

a person’s physical, mental, emotional, and sexual attraction to a particular sex (male or female)

queer theory

(1) an interdisciplinary approach to sexuality studies that identifies Western society’s rigid splitting of gender into specific roles and questions the manner in which we have been taught to think about sexual orientation

(2) focuses on mismatches between anatomical sex, gender identity, and sexual orientation, not just division into male/female or homosexual/heterosexual

sexism

the prejudiced belief that one sex should be valued over another

transgender

an adjective that describes individuals who identify with the behaviors and characteristics that are other than their biological sex

social movement

a purposeful organized group hoping to work toward a common social goal

collective behavior

a noninstitutionalized activity in which several people voluntarily engage

polygamy

the state of being committed or married to more than one person at a time

intimate partner violence (ipv)

violence that occurs between individuals who maintain a romantic or sexual relationship

american psychological association (apa)

a leading scientific and professional organization representing psychology in the u.s.; promotes psychological science and knowledge to benefit society and improve lives

wealth

the value of money and assets a person has from; ex: inheritance or salary

income

the money a person earns from work or investments

gender dysphoria

a condition listed in the dsm-5 in which people experience a deep sense of distress or discomfort due to incongruence between their sex assigned at birth and their gender identity; replaces “gender identity disorder”

ethnicity

shared culture; heritage, language, religion, etc.

race

a grouping of humankind based on shared physical or social qualities that can vary from one society to another

polyandry

a form of polygamy in which a woman has more than one husband at the same time

convergence theory

a sociological theory to explain how and why societies move toward similarity over time as their economies develop

frame alignment process

using bridging, amplification, extension, and transformation as an ongoing and intentional means of recruiting participants to a movement