Enlightenment/Revolutions ID Terms

Conservatism

A political ideology that emerged during the post-Napoleonic era, advocating for tradition, monarchy, and organized religion as pillars of societal stability. Influential figures like Edmund Burke emphasized gradual change rather than revolutionary upheaval. This philosophy countered liberal and nationalist movements.

Deism

A belief system prevalent during the Enlightenment, focusing on reason and the observation of nature. Deists believed in a "clockmaker" God who created the universe but does not intervene in human affairs. This idea aligned with Enlightenment ideals of rationalism and progress.

Romanticism

A reaction against Enlightenment rationalism and industrialization, Romanticism emphasized emotion, individualism, and the beauty of nature. Writers like Goethe and poets like Byron challenged the cold logic of reason, favoring imagination and the sublime.

Nationalism

A political and cultural movement advocating for the self-determination of a people united by shared language, history, or culture. During the 19th century, nationalism played a key role in the unification of Italy and Germany, as well as anti-colonial movements worldwide.

Mary Wollstonecraft

An Enlightenment thinker and early feminist who argued for women's education and equality in her work A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Her ideas influenced later feminist movements during the 19th and 20th centuries.

Voltaire

A leading figure of the Enlightenment, known for his advocacy of freedom of speech, religious tolerance, and separation of church and state. His satirical works criticized absolutism and injustice, spreading Enlightenment ideas across Europe.

Salons

Intellectual gatherings, often hosted by influential women, during the Enlightenment. These gatherings fostered discussions among philosophers, scientists, and writers, contributing to the spread of revolutionary ideas.

Liberals

Advocates of individual freedoms, constitutional government, and equality before the law, liberals opposed absolutism and sought reforms like universal suffrage and free trade during the 19th century.

Deists

Followers of Deism who embraced the belief in reason and a non-interventionist creator. Deism shaped Enlightenment attitudes toward religion and the scientific study of the world.

First Estate

The clergy in France's pre-revolutionary society, enjoying privileges and exemptions from taxation. They were a symbol of inequality in the Ancient Régime.

Second Estate

The nobility, who held land, wealth, and political power. They were exempt from most taxes and opposed reforms during the French Revolution.

Third Estate

The common people, including peasants, workers, and the bourgeoisie. Their discontent fueled the French Revolution and led to demands for equal representation.

Bourgeoisie

The wealthy, educated middle class in Europe who sought political and social reforms. They played a significant role in the French Revolution and later industrial and nationalist movements.

Tennis Court Oath

A pivotal moment in the French Revolution when members of the Third Estate vowed to draft a new constitution. It symbolized their defiance against the monarchy.

Bastille

The storming of this fortress-prison marked the beginning of the French Revolution, demonstrating popular opposition to tyranny.

Olympe de Gouges

A feminist writer who authored the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen, challenging male-dominated ideas of equality during the French Revolution.

Creoles

European descendants born in Latin America, often leaders in independence movements against colonial powers.

Primogeniture

A system of inheritance where the eldest son receives family property and titles, reinforcing patriarchal social structures.

Mestizos

Mixed-race individuals of European and indigenous ancestry, forming a significant demographic in colonial societies.

Peninsulares

Spanish-born officials in Latin America, holding privileged positions under colonial rule.

Zionism

A late-19th-century movement advocating for the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine, led by figures like Theodor Herzl.

John Locke

A philosopher whose ideas on natural rights (life, liberty, property) and government by consent influenced revolutions like the American and French Revolutions.

Social Contract

A theory popularized by thinkers like Rousseau, suggesting that society functions based on an implicit agreement between rulers and the ruled.

Baron Montesquieu

Known for his theory of the separation of powers, which inspired democratic governments worldwide.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

an Enlightenment thinker, profoundly influenced political philosophy with his idea of the social contract, arguing that legitimate government stems from the consent of the governed and a commitment to the common good.

Thomas Paine

a revolutionary writer and activist, played a key role in inspiring independence movements, particularly through his pamphlet Common Sense, which championed the ideas of liberty, equality, and self-governance.

separation of powers

rooted in the works of philosophers like Montesquieu, became a cornerstone of modern political systems, ensuring that governmental power is divided among distinct branches—executive, legislative, and judicial—to prevent tyranny and safeguard individual freedoms.

The Age of Reason

Written by Thomas Paine, advocating for reason and Deism over religious dogma.

Declaration of the Rights of Man

A revolutionary document declaring the equality and rights of citizens, inspired by Enlightenment principles.

Code Napoleon

A legal code established by Napoleon Bonaparte that reformed French laws, promoting equality and property rights.

Philosophes

a new group of thinkers of the eighteenth century who explored social, political, and economic theories in new ways that they felt followed rationally upon those of the scientific thinkers of the seventeenth century

Napoleon Bonaparte

A French leader who consolidated power and spread revolutionary ideals across Europe, reshaping borders and governance.

King Louis XVI

The monarch executed during the French Revolution for failing to address the grievances of the Third Estate.

Maximilien Robespierre

A radical leader during the Reign of Terror, advocating for equality and virtue.

Toussaint L'Ouverture

Leader of the Haitian Revolution, the first successful slave revolt in history.

Miguel Hidalgo

A priest who initiated Mexico's fight for independence against Spain.

Benito Juarez

A reformist president in Mexico, championing liberal and indigenous rights.

Simon Bolivar

The liberator of South America, leading independence movements against Spanish rule.

Giuseppe Garibaldi

A nationalist who fought for Italian unification through military campaigns.

Otto von Bismarck

A German statesman known for unifying Germany using Realpolitik.

Levee en Masse

Mass conscription enacted during the French Revolution to defend the republic.

Congress of Vienna

A diplomatic conference to restore European balance of power after Napoleon's defeat.

Klemens von Metternich

Austrian diplomat who played a leading role in the Congress of Vienna and championed conservatism.

Realpolitik

A pragmatic approach to politics, emphasizing power and practical goals over ideology.

Dreyfus Affair

A scandal in France where Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish officer, was wrongfully accused of treason, highlighting anti-Semitism.

Socialism

a system of public ownership or direct worker ownership of the means of production

Physiocrats

Enlightenment thinkers who believed agriculture was the foundation of wealth.

The Wealth of Nations

Adam Smith's influential work advocating free markets and laissez-faire economics.

Laissez-faire

An economic philosophy promoting minimal government interference in business.

Utopian Socialists

Early socialists like Charles Fourier who envisioned cooperative communities.

Robert Owen

A pioneer in Utopian socialism, creating model industrial communities.

Fabian Society

A British organization advocating gradual socialist reforms.

Classical Liberalism

A philosophy focused on individual freedoms, limited government, and free-market economics.