Studied by 0 people
Looks like no one added any tags here yet for you.
Independent variable
Factor changed by the experimenter
Dependent variable
Factor measured in response to changes
Controlled variables
Conditions kept constant during the experiment
Testable hypothesis
Falsifiable explanation for a phenomenon
Negative control
Group not receiving treatment for comparison
Protons
Positively charged particles in the nucleus
Neutrons
Neutral particles in the nucleus of an atom
Electrons
Negatively charged particles orbiting the nucleus
Net charge
Total of positive and negative charges
Atomic mass
Mass of an atom, primarily from protons and neutrons
Isotope
Element variant with different neutron count
Electron shells
regions around nucleus containing electrons
Valence electrons
Electrons in the outermost electron shell
Inert atom
Atom with a full valence shell, unreactive
Chemical bond
Attraction between atoms forming molecules
Molecule
Two or more bonded atoms, same or different
Ionic bond
Bond formed by electron transfer between atoms
Cation
Positively charged ion, electron donor
Anion
Negatively charged ion, electron acceptor
Salt
Compound formed from cation-anion interactions
Sodium chloride
Common salt formed by sodium and chlorine
Sodium Ions
Regulate blood volume and pressure.
Ionic Bonds
Form and maintain protein shapes.
Covalent Bonds
Atoms share pairs of electrons.
Electronegativity
Atom's ability to attract electrons.
Nonpolar Covalent Bond
Equal sharing of electrons between atoms.
Polar Covalent Bond
Unequal sharing of electrons creates partial charges.
Hydrogen Bond
Attraction between hydrogen and electronegative atoms.
Electrons in Outer Shell
the number of bonds an atom forms.
Covalent Bonding Elements
Involves carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen.
Glucose and Fructose
Sugars held together by covalent bonds.
Partial Positive Charge
Developed by less electronegative atom in polar bond.
Partial Negative Charge
Developed by more electronegative atom in polar bond.
Ionic Bonding
Atoms transfer electrons, carrying full charges.
Hydrogen Bonding in Water
Water's polar bonds lead to hydrogen bonds.
Covalent Bond Example
Hydrogen atoms share electrons equally.
Chlorine's Electronegativity
Stronger attraction for shared electrons than hydrogen.
Net Movement in Nonpolar Molecules
Polar bonds cancel each other out.
Hydrogen Bond
Attraction between hydrogen and electronegative atom.
Covalent Bonding
Essential for living organisms' molecular structure.
Polar Bonds
Bonds with partial positive and negative charges.
Cohesion
Attraction between like molecules, e.g., water.
Surface Tension
Resistance of water surface due to hydrogen bonds.
Capillarity
Movement of water against gravity through cohesion and adhesion.
High Specific Heat
Heat required to change 1g's temperature by 1°C.
Hydrophilic
Molecules that interact favorably with water.
Hydrophobic
Molecules that do not interact with water.
Hydrophilic Interaction
Polar regions of solutes form hydrogen bonds with water.
Proton (H+)
Hydrogen atom without its electron, highly reactive.
Hydroxide Ion (OH-)
Water molecule retains hydrogen's electron, reactive ion.
Acid
Substance that increases H+ concentration in solution.
Base
Substance that decreases H+ concentration or increases OH-.
Ocean Acidification
Decrease in ocean pH due to CO2 absorption.
Carbonic Acid (H2CO3)
Formed when CO2 dissolves in seawater.
Bicarbonate (HCO3-)
Produced from H+ combining with carbonate ions.
Functional Groups
Groups that determine chemical reactivity of molecules.
Macromolecules
Large organic molecules, often with 1000+ atoms.
Carbohydrates
Sugars and starches, energy sources for organisms.
Biomolecules
Organic molecules essential for life, containing CHON.
Covalent Bond
Bond linking functional groups to carbon skeleton.
Hydrophilic vs Hydrophobic
Carbs are generally hydrophilic, interacting with water.
Polymerization
Process of linking monomers to form polymers.
Glycosidic bond
Covalent bond linking sugar molecules.
Disaccharides
Two monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bond.
Polysaccharides
Long chains of monosaccharide units.
Ionic bonds
Electrostatic attraction between charged ions.
Covalent bonds
Bonds formed by shared electron pairs.
Hydrogen bonds
Weak bonds between polar molecules.
Hydrophobic bonds
Interactions between nonpolar molecules in water.
Cellulose
Structural polysaccharide in plant cell walls.
Chitin
Structural polysaccharide in arthropods and fungi.
Starches
Polysaccharides serving as glucose storage in plants.
Glycogen
Carbohydrate storage molecule in animals.
Fat
Glycerol linked to three fatty acids.
Phospholipids
Molecules with hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails.
Amphipathic
Molecules with both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions.
Sterols
Subgroup of steroids, important for membrane structure.
Cholesterol
Essential for animal cell membrane stability.
Lipoproteins
Molecules that transport cholesterol in bloodstream.
Cholesterol
Hydrophobic substance, not soluble in blood.
Amphipathic molecules
Contain both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions.
Globular proteins
Water-soluble proteins with compact shapes.
Fibrous proteins
Structural proteins, long and narrow.
Membrane proteins
Proteins that function as receptors and channels.
Carbohydrates
Organic compounds, including glucose and polysaccharides.
Amino acids
Monomers that make up proteins, 20 types.
Peptide bonds
Covalent bonds linking amino acids in proteins.
Dehydration reaction
Process forming peptide bonds by removing water.
Polypeptides
Chains of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
Hydrolysis reaction
Process breaking down polypeptides into amino acids.
Primary structure
Sequence of amino acids in a protein.
Secondary structure
Local folding patterns like alpha helices and beta sheets.
Tertiary structure
Overall 3D shape of a polypeptide.
Quaternary structure
Assembly of multiple polypeptides into a functional protein.
Denaturation
Unfolding of proteins, inhibiting their function.
Nucleic acids
Biomolecules that store and transmit genetic information.
Gene
Unit of inheritance located on chromosomes.
Nucleotides
Monomers of nucleic acids, consisting of three parts.
DNA backbone
Structure formed by phosphate and sugar groups.
Chromatin
Complex of DNA and histones in the nucleus.
