AP Seminar

Argument

Key Components of a Written Argument

• Claim: A clear, debatable assertion or thesis about a topic that the writer wants the audience to accept. 

• Evidence: Information (facts, statistics, observations, examples) that supports the claim and provides proof of its validity. 

• Reasons: Explanations that connect the evidence to the claim, demonstrating why the evidence supports the position. 

• Audience: The specific people the writer is trying to persuade; understanding the audience helps tailor the argument effectively. 

• Logical Structure: The way reasons and evidence are organized to form a coherent, persuasive flow of ideas. 

Examples: The government should invest in healthy lunches for impoverished children at school to improve their quality of life, nutritional health and academic performance.

Homework should be banned because it causes unnecessary stress and doesn't improve test scores.

The difference between the argument in a research report vs in a persuasive article

The argument in a research report is backed by facts and evidence that support a thesis statement, such as a report arguing that the effects of violent video games on children are overwhelmingly negative. 

The argument in a persuasive article is often backed by use of rhetoric and appeals to emotion to try to convince the reader. Rhetoric is the art of constructing language to persuade, motivate, or influence an audience. Writers and speakers use rhetoric to influence what you think or feel about their ideas.

Rhetoric is everywhere, in commercials, speeches, and even everyday conversations. Appeals to emotion are arguments that manipulate feelings instead of using logic or evidence to persuade an audience. Examples include using graphic images of suffering to solicit donations, promoting a political candidate based on a heartwarming story, or selling a product with a nostalgic advertisement that promises happiness.

In AP Seminar, specifically, the argument in a Research Report (specifically, the Individual Written Argument or IWA) is a claim or thesis that is developed through a line of reasoning and supported by thoroughly analyzed and evaluated evidence from multiple sources, demonstrating a clear connection between the evidence and the argument's claims. The argument must not just summarize sources but purposefully integrate them to support a unique perspective, offering a convincing solution or conclusion that is connected to the argument's complexity.

Lenses

In AP Seminar, lenses are different academic disciplines or frameworks through which a topic can be analyzed. By applying multiple lenses to a single research question, students gain a more comprehensive understanding by examining the issue from various angles, leading to richer individual research and collaborative projects. 

There are eight commonly used lenses for AP Seminar: 

• Environmental Lens: Focuses on the effects of an issue on the natural world 

• Scientific Lens: Analyzes issues through scientific research, data, and the scientific method 

• Economic Lens: Examines the financial impact, resources, and wealth related to the issue

• Futuristic Lens: Explores the predicted future impacts of the issue

• Political and Historical Lens: Considers the role of governments, laws, and past events in shaping the issue

• Ethical Lens: Evaluates actions and decisions based on moral principles, right and wrong, and human rights 

• Artistic and Philosophical Lens: Investigates how art reflects ideas and how philosophical concepts address the issue

Cultural and Social Lens: Studies the impact of the issue on beliefs, customs, relationships, and different groups of people

Perspectives

In AP Seminar, a perspective is the specific viewpoint, argument, or position that someone holds on an issue, shaped by their experiences, beliefs, and values, and often viewed through a particular lens or considered from the viewpoint of a stakeholder. To evaluate perspectives, you must understand the underlying assumptions, biases, and motivations of the individual or group holding them and analyze the evidence and reasoning they use to support their claim. 

Stakeholder

In AP Seminar, a stakeholder is any individual, group, or organization that has a vested interest in or is affected by the outcomes of a particular issue, policy, or action. Recognizing and understanding the diverse perspectives and potential conflicts among various stakeholders is crucial for analyzing issues comprehensively and developing well-reasoned arguments, which is a core skill in the AP Seminar course.

Why Stakeholders are Important in AP Seminar:

• Comprehensive Analysis: By identifying stakeholders, you can explore how different people and groups are affected by an issue. 

• Multiple Perspectives: Stakeholders represent different viewpoints, which helps you avoid bias and gain a more complete understanding of the issue. 

• Complexity: Considering various stakeholders adds depth and complexity to your analysis, moving beyond a single viewpoint. 

• Ethical Considerations: You must think about the ethical impact of decisions and how they affect different groups. 

• Informed Arguments: Understanding stakeholder interests allows you to develop stronger, more well-rounded arguments that address potential counterarguments and consequences. 

If you are researching the issue of plastic waste in oceans, potential stakeholders could include:

• Governments: (setting regulations)

• Environmental organizations: (advocating for solutions)

• Businesses: (producing or consuming plastic)

• Consumers: (using products with plastic packaging)

• Fishermen: (affected by pollution in their livelihoods)

• Coastal communities: (dealing with plastic debris)

• Scientists: (studying the impacts of plastic pollution)

By examining the perspectives and interests of these different stakeholders, you can build a more robust argument and analysis for your AP Seminar research.

Line of Reasoning

In AP Seminar, a line of reasoning (LoR) is the logical, structured path of claims and evidence that leads an audience from the initial claim to a conclusion. It explains how one idea connects to the next, showing the sequential development of an argument. A strong line of reasoning is built on a hierarchy of ideas, where smaller claims support larger points, ultimately leading to the thesis, and the evidence directly supports the claims.

Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning, or deduction, is a logical process of moving from general statements (premises) to a specific, certain conclusion. If the general premises are true, the specific conclusion derived from them must also be true. This "top-down" approach is used in academia and everyday life, contrasting with inductive reasoning, which moves from specific observations to general conclusions. 

How Deductive Reasoning Works

• General Premise(s): Start with a broad, accepted truth or rule. 

• Specific Premise(s): Link a specific instance to the general rule. 

• Logical Conclusion: Based on the two premises, a specific conclusion that is guaranteed to be true follows. 

Example 

• Premise 1 (General): All men are mortal.

• Premise 2 (Specific): Socrates is a man.

• Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

Deductive reasoning moves from general principles to specific conclusions, aiming for certainty if premises are true (e.g., All men are mortal; Socrates is a man; therefore, Socrates is mortal). Inductive reasoning makes generalizations from specific observations, leading to probable but not guaranteed conclusions (e.g., Every swan I've seen is white; therefore, all swans are white). 

• Use deductive reasoning when: You need absolute proof or to apply a known rule to a specific situation. 

• Use inductive reasoning when: You need to explore data, generate new ideas, and form hypotheses from observations.

Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning is a form of "bottom-up" thinking that involves making broad generalizations from specific observations and patterns, leading to plausible but not certain conclusions. This process involves observing patterns in specific instances, then developing a general theory or conclusion that accounts for those patterns. While not always leading to a true conclusion, it's a crucial tool for creating hypotheses, making predictions, and forming credible beliefs based on available evidence

How Inductive Reasoning Works

• Observation: You observe a specific event, phenomenon, or set of data. 

• Pattern Seeking: You identify patterns or consistencies within those specific observations. 

• Generalization: Based on the patterns, you form a general conclusion or theory. 

Examples

• Allergic Reaction: You notice your lips swell after eating strawberries on three separate occasions. You observe these specific incidents and conclude, "More likely than not, I am allergic to strawberries". 

• Animal Behavior: You see a low-cost airline flight is delayed. After several more delays with low-cost flights, you might hypothesize, "Low-cost airlines always have delays". 

Limitations

• Incomplete Certainty: Inductive reasoning can never provide absolute certainty; the conclusion is only as strong as the evidence presented. 

• Potential for False Conclusions: If the initial sample of observations is insufficient, biased, or fails to account for exceptions, the resulting generalization can be incorrect. For instance, if you only saw white swans, you might wrongly conclude all swans are white. 

• Skewed by New Information: New evidence can emerge to prove the initial theory or conclusion wrong, even if the specific observations were accurate. 

Why It's Important

• Scientific Discovery: Scientists use inductive reasoning to develop hypotheses from observations that can then be tested. 

• Daily Life: It's a common form of thinking used for making everyday judgments and predictions based on experience. 

• Clinical Judgment: In fields like nursing, inductive reasoning helps professionals identify potential problems by noticing cues and forming hypotheses. 

• Use deductive reasoning when: You need absolute proof or to apply a known rule to a specific situation. 

• Use inductive reasoning when: You need to explore data, generate new ideas, and form hypotheses from observations. 

Sign-posting

In AP Seminar, signposting refers to the use of clear verbal or visual cues to guide your audience through your presentation or essay. This involves using transition words and phrases in your written work and explicit cues in your presentations, like specific phrases, to make your structure and argument easy for your audience to follow. Signposting is a key skill for organizing and advancing your argument, helping the audience understand your main points and how they connect.  In Written Work (Individual Research Report - IRR):  Use transition words: Employ words and phrases like "first," "next," "however," and "in conclusion" to indicate the relationship between different ideas. State your purpose: Clearly state the purpose of your argument and the main points you will cover. Provide a roadmap: Give your reader a clear overview of your essay's structure at the beginning. In Presentations: Use explicit phrases: Verbally tell your audience what you are discussing, such as "This next slide will show..." or "Moving on to the next point, we can see...".  Employ visuals for structure: Use visual aids to organize and highlight information, which can act as signposts to help the audience process the content.  Clearly introduce points: Make it obvious what each section of your presentation is about so the audience knows where they are in your argument.  Why is signposting important in AP Seminar? Organization: It creates a logical flow, making your entire presentation or essay easier to follow.  Clarity: It ensures your audience understands your message and the main points of your argument.  Emphasis: It highlights key ideas and relationships between different pieces of information.  College Readiness: It demonstrates advanced communication skills that are highly valued in college and beyond.

Non-traditional texts

In AP Seminar, "non-traditional texts" refers to sources that go beyond conventional academic articles and books to provide evidence and perspectives for inquiry. These sources can include media, artistic works, data, and personal accounts, which help students engage with a topic from multiple lenses. 

Examples of non-traditional texts suitable for AP Seminar include:

• Multimedia and Digital Content:

  • Podcasts: Shows like TED Radio Hour, Morning Edition (NPR), or episodes from The Daily.

  • Broadcasts: Clips from news programs such as CNN10 or BBC Newsround.

  • Videos: Documentaries, TED Talks, or historical footage.

  • Social Media: Analyzing social media platforms and their effects on discourse, as explored in books like Anti-Social Media or The Chaos Machine.

• Artistic and Visual Works:

  • Visual Art: Paintings, sculptures, or photographs can offer a historical, emotional, or cultural perspective.

  • Film: Narrative films or documentaries provide a powerful medium for exploring complex themes.

  • Graphic Novels and Manga: These can be used to analyze narrative structure, visual information, and the author's message in a non-traditional format.

• Data and Statistical Analysis:

  • Reports and Data Sets: Numerical data from studies, polls, or statistical reports can serve as quantitative evidence.

  • Infographics: These visual representations of data can provide insights into a topic.

  • Books on Data Science: Texts like The Data Detective by Tim Harford or Naked Statistics by Charles Wheelan can help students understand how to interpret and use data effectively.

• Personal and Human Accounts:

  • Speeches: Historic or contemporary speeches, like Elie Wiesel's "The Perils of Indifference," can offer a powerful first-person or rhetorical perspective.

  • Personal Accounts: Diaries, letters, or autobiographies can provide rich qualitative evidence.

  • Oral Histories: Recorded interviews that capture personal experiences and perspectives. 

Why use non-traditional texts in AP Seminar?

• Multiple Perspectives: They allow students to explore a topic from a variety of angles (or "lenses"), which is central to the course's inquiry framework.

• Engagement: A variety of formats can increase student engagement and accessibility, making complex topics more relatable.

• Real-world Context: Using current media and data exposes students to the types of sources they will encounter outside of a traditional academic setting, helping them develop crucial media literacy skills.

• Inquiry and Synthesis: These texts often serve as valuable stimulus material for the AP Seminar Performance Tasks, prompting students to develop research questions, analyze evidence, and synthesize different viewpoints to build their own arguments. 

Bias

Bias refers to a tendency or inclination that affects judgment and decision-making, often leading to a distortion of reality or an unfair advantage. It can manifest in various forms, such as cognitive, emotional, or social influences, shaping perceptions and interpretations of information. Recognizing bias is crucial for ensuring objective analysis and fostering critical thinking skills.

5 Must Know Facts Bias can occur at individual, institutional, and societal levels, influencing decisions made in various contexts such as media reporting, scientific research, and policy-making.

1. Understanding one's own biases is essential for effective critical thinking and helps in evaluating arguments and evidence more fairly.

2. Bias is not always negative; it can stem from personal experiences and values, influencing preferences and opinions that shape identity.

3. In research, bias can lead to skewed results and conclusions, emphasizing the importance of using rigorous methods to mitigate its effects.

4. Awareness of bias encourages individuals to seek diverse perspectives and engage with conflicting viewpoints, ultimately enriching understanding.

Food preferences: Simply liking one type of food, such as baked potatoes, more than another (like mashed potatoes), can be considered a mild form of bias.

Brand loyalty: A strong preference for one car brand over another, like a belief that Chevy is inherently better than Ford, is a form of brand bias.

Choosing activities: Preferring to read a book over watching television is an example of entertainment bias.

Logical fallacies

In AP Seminar, logical fallacies are flaws in reasoning that make an argument invalid or weak. Recognizing and understanding these errors is crucial for analyzing sources, strengthening your own arguments, and avoiding them in your writing. Common fallacies include:

Ad Hominem: Latin meaning ‘to the man’ (attacking the person, not the argument), [Dismissing a politician's economic proposal by saying, "You can't trust anything he says, he's a terrible person," is an Ad Hominem fallacy.] 

Straw Man (misrepresenting an argument to make it seems weaker or more extreme), [Arguing that because someone supports stronger gun control, they must want to ban all guns and end the Second Amendment is a Straw Man.]

Slippery Slope (claiming an event will lead to a chain of negative events without proof), [Arguing that if the government bans one type of harmful chemical, it will soon lead to banning all chemicals, is a Slippery Slope.

Hasty Generalization (making a broad claim from limited evidence), [Saying, "My uncle smoked a lot and lived to be 90, so smoking isn't actually that harmful," is a hasty generalization.]

Red Herring (introducing an irrelevant topic to distract). [A reporter asks a politician about the rising cost of living, but the politician responds by highlighting recent job growth numbers, shifting the focus from inflation to employment.] 

Why They Matter in AP Seminar

• Analyzing Sources: Identifying fallacies in provided sources helps you critique the evidence and argumentation, strengthening your own essay. 

• Strengthening Your Argument: By avoiding logical fallacies, you present a more sound and credible argument. 

• Understanding Rhetoric: Recognizing flawed logic is part of analyzing how arguments are constructed and how they persuade an audience.

Steps for reading charts and graphs

Want to read charts like a pro?  Just follow these 5 simple steps:  Title: Start by reading the title of the chart. It’ll give you a clue about what the chart is showing. For example, “Sales by Month” means the chart is about monthly sales.  Axes: Next, check out the axes (the lines on the sides of the chart). The x-axis (horizontal line) shows categories or times, like months or types of products. The y-axis (vertical line) shows values or amounts, like dollars or numbers of items.  Legend: If there’s a legend (a small box with labels and colors), it tells you what the colors or symbols in the chart mean. For instance, red might represent “Apples” and blue might represent “Oranges.”  Data: Now, explore the data (the bars, lines, or points in the chart). Look for patterns, trends, or differences. Are sales going up or down? Which product is most popular?  Summary Story: Finally, think about the main point or story the chart is telling. In our example, maybe we learned that apple sales are highest in the fall and orange sales peak in the winter.

Quality Questioning

In AP Seminar, quality questioning involves crafting open-ended, researchable questions that invite analysis of multiple perspectives and ongoing debate, rather than simple description or factual recall. Good research questions should prompt evaluative judgment, allow for engagement with alternative views, be focused enough to be researchable, and begin with words like "how," "why," or "to what extent". 

Characteristics of a Quality AP Seminar Research Question

• Evaluative and Analytical: The question should require more than just a description or a "yes" or "no" answer. It should demand judgment or evaluation to be made. 

• Researchable: It must be possible to find relevant and credible sources to answer the question. 

• Involves Ongoing Debate: A good question sits within a real and ongoing conversation, inviting different viewpoints and interpretations. 

• Invites Alternative Perspectives: The question should open the door to engaging with different ideas, not just one fixed point of view. 

• Focuses the Research: The question should be simple and clear, preventing it from becoming too broad or complex, which would make it difficult to research effectively. 

• Starts with Open-Ended Words: Questions should begin with words that encourage deeper exploration, such as "how," "why," "what," "would," "could," or "to what extent". 

Steps to Develop a Quality Research Question 

• Choose a Topic: Select a topic of interest with a clear focus to guide your research.

• Brainstorm Questions: Develop a list of questions about the broader conversation surrounding your chosen topic.

• Identify the Goal: Consider what you want to accomplish with your research.

• Select a Question: Choose the question that best meets your interest and purpose, ensuring it aligns with the characteristics of a quality question.

• Refine the Question: Revision is often necessary to ensure the question is not vague or overly broad and that it effectively guides the research.

Annotated bibliography

Steps to Create an AP Seminar Annotated Bibliography

• Select and Examine Sources: Find at least eight reputable, scholarly sources relevant to your research question, including at least two scholarly sources (books or academic journals) and one book. 

• Write a Formal Citation: Begin each entry with a complete and accurate citation for the source, following the required citation style (like APA or MLA). 

• Summarize the Source: In the annotation, briefly describe the source's main purpose, content, and the author's thesis or argument. 

• Analyze the Source: Evaluate the author's argument, methods, and credibility, noting their academic background and potential biases. 

• Connect to Your Research: Explain how the source's information relates to your research question and thesis, highlighting the evidence the author used. 

• Show Disagreements: Identify and describe points where two or more sources disagree or offer different perspectives on the topic, putting the sources "into conversation". 

• Format Your Bibliography: Ensure the entire annotated bibliography is double-spaced and includes both the citation and the annotation for each source. 

Key Components of Each Annotation 

• Summary: A brief overview of the source's argument and findings.

• Analysis: An evaluation of the source's strengths, weaknesses, methodology, and credibility.

• Application: An explanation of how the source's information contributes to your specific research question and project.

• Source Disagreement: An analysis of how the source conflicts with or complements other sources on the same topic.

Credibility

In AP Seminar, credibility is the quality of a source that makes it believable, trustworthy, and reliable. Evaluating credibility involves assessing a source's expertise and trustworthiness to determine its ability to provide accurate, unbiased, and relevant information for an academic argument or inquiry. 

Key Aspects of Credibility in AP Seminar

• Trustworthiness: Can the source be trusted to provide honest information? This is often linked to the perceived honesty and reliability of the source. 

• Expertise: Does the author or source have the necessary knowledge, skill, or experience in the subject area to offer authoritative information? 

• Relevance: Is the information relevant to the specific research question or argument being made? 

• Bias: Does the source present a biased perspective that might skew the information or distort facts? 

• Objectivity: Is the information presented in a neutral, impartial manner, or is there evidence of personal or systemic bias influencing the presentation? 

How to Evaluate Credibility

• Examine the Author/Source: Consider the author's qualifications, reputation, and any vested interests they may have in the topic. 

• Review the Source's Reputation: Look at the publisher or institution the source is associated with and its general standing for accuracy and reliability. 

• Check for Expertise: Determine if the author possesses specific knowledge or if the evidence comes from a source with demonstrated expertise. 

• Look for Evidence and Data: Does the source support its claims with evidence, data, or findings? 

• Assess for Bias: Identify any personal or institutional biases that could affect the information's presentation. 

• Consider the CRAAP or RAVEN Method: Tools like the RAVEN method (Reputation, Authority, Accuracy, Neutrality, Expertise) or CRAAP test (Currency, Relevance, Authority, Accuracy, Purpose) can help systematically evaluate online and print sources. 

Tiers of Source Credibility

Tier 1

Important Considerations for AP Seminar Research

• Mix of Tiers: Your research for AP Seminar assignments should include a combination of Tier 1, Tier 2, and Tier 3 sources, with a minimum requirement to use at least some Tier 1 and Tier 2 sources for your IRR (Individual Research Report). 

• P.A.A.C.E. process: Before implementing evidence, review each source using a structured process like P.A.A.C.E. to evaluate its credibility. 

• Author Authority and Bias: Always consider the author's credentials, potential biases, and the publisher's reputation to assess the trustworthiness of a source. 

Peer-Reviewed Academic Publications

• Content: Rigorous research, original data, and expert analysis. 

• Examples: Scholarly articles published in academic journals, often the result of a peer review process where other experts in the field evaluate the work before publication. 

• How to Find: Through academic databases and library catalogs. 

Tiers of Source Credibility

Tier 2

Reports, Articles, and Books from Credible Non-Academic Sources 

• Content: Well-researched, even-handed descriptions of an event or a state of the world. 

• Examples: Reports from reputable government agencies (e.g., Pew Research Center), books published by major presses on a topic, or articles from highly reputable news organizations. 

• How to Find: Google searches with (site:gov or site:org) can be helpful, as can searching academic databases. 

Tiers of Source Credibility

Tier 3

Short Pieces from Newspapers or Credible Websites

• Content: Simple reporting of events, research findings, or policy changes. 

• Examples: Newspaper articles from reputable publications, or articles on credible websites that may not be academic. 

• Uses: These sources can help identify useful Tier 1 or Tier 2 sources, provide some factual information, and give a quick overview of events or trends. 

Tiers of Source Credibility

Tier 4

Agenda-Driven or Uncertain Pieces

• Content: Mostly opinion, with varying degrees of thoughtfulness and credibility. 

• Examples: Sources with a clear agenda, unknown authors, or those that cannot be verified or seem untrustworthy. 

• Caution: These sources should be used sparingly and with careful evaluation for bias or lack of evidence. 

Tiers of Source Credibility

Tier 5

Tier 5 in a source credibility model refers to the least credible sources, such as social media, unverified websites, and personal blogs. These sources are considered unreliable due to a lack of authority, potential for bias, limited objectivity, and outdated or unconfirmed information, making them unsuitable for research and academic use.  

Characteristics of Tier 5 Sources:

• Lack of Expertise: Information is often presented by individuals or organizations with no demonstrated expertise on the subject. 

• Absence of Authority: The source lacks a clear "About" section or other verifiable indicators of expertise or agenda. 

• Potential for Bias: Sources may have a hidden agenda or be funded in a way that compromises their objectivity. 

• Unverified Information: The information is not confirmed or supported by other reliable sources. 

• Low Originality: In the context of LLMs, this tier might involve an AI generating original text, which violates authorship and originality for scholarly work, according to SciELO SA. 

Why Avoid Tier 5 Sources for Research: 

• Inaccuracy: The information is likely to be error-free or even contradictory to established facts, notes FIRST - Improving Security Together.

• Lack of Depth: Content may be superficial and lack the depth and rigor of more credible sources.

• Unreliability: The information cannot be trusted to be accurate, objective, or up-to-date.