AP Biology Review Flashcards

Flashcards covering key concepts from AP Biology Review notes.

Carbohydrates

Composed of C, H, & O- Ratio: 1:2:1; Monomer: Monosaccharide; Examples: Glucose, Fructose, Galactose

Disaccharides

Two monosaccharides; Bond: Glycosidic Linkage; Examples: Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose

Cellulose

found in plant cell walls

Chitin

found in fungi cell walls & exoskeleton of arthropods

Starch

found in plants

Glycogen

found in animals

Proteins

Composed of C, H, O, N, & S; Monomer: Amino Acid; Bond: Peptide bond (between carboxyl & amino groups)

Primary Protein Structure

string of amino acids

Secondary Protein Structure

alpha helix or beta pleated sheet; Bond: hydrogen bonds between backbone

Tertiary Protein Structure

final 3D structure; Bond: ANY (hydrogen, covalent, ionic, …) between R groups

Quaternary Protein Structure

Bond: ANY (hydrogen, covalent, ionic, …) between R groups of different polypeptides

Lipids

Composed of C, H, O, & P (in phospholipids); Monomer: N/A

Lipids - Polarity

All of the lipids are NONPOLAR!!

Nucleic Acids

Composed of C, H, O, N, & P; Monomer: Nucleotide; Bond: Phosphodiester linkage (between phosphate and hydroxyl)

Purines

adenine & guanine

Pyrimidines

cytosine, uracil, & thymine

Nucleus Functions

Stores genetic information (DNA); Synthesis of RNA; Ribosome subunit assembly

Rough ER Functions

Membrane studded with ribosomes attached to nuclear envelope; Site of membrane-bound protein and secreted protein synthesis; Cell compartmentalization; Mechanical support; Role in intracellular transport

Smooth ER Structure & Functions

Folded, tubelike structure (cisternae); Detoxification; Calcium Storage; Lipid synthesis

Golgi Complex Structure & Functions

Membrane-bound structure composed on flattened sacs (cisternae); Folding and chemical modification of synthesized proteins; Packaging protein traffic

Ribosomes Structure, Types, and Functions

Composed of rRNA and protein; Large & small subunits; bound or free (cytoplasmic); Protein synthesis

Mitochondria Structure & Functions

Double membrane (outer: smooth; inner: highly folded); Site of oxidative phosphorylation (cristae/inner membrane); Site of Krebs Cycle (matrix)

Lysosome Structure & Functions

membrane-enclosed sacs that contain hydrolytic enzymes; Intracellular digestion (recycle cell organic materials & programmed cell death: apoptosis)

Vacuole Functions

storage and release of macromolecules and cellular waste products

Chloroplast Structure & Functions

Double outer membrane (thylakoid sac stacked: grana and fluid: stroma); Site of photosynthesis; Thylakoid: Light Reactions; Stroma: Calvin-Benson Cycle

Sphere: Volume and Surface Area Formulas

Volume: V = 4/3 πr³; Surface Area: S = 4πr²

Rectangular Solid: Volume and Surface Area Formulas

Volume: V=LWH; Surface Area: S=2LH+2LW+2WH

Cube: Volume and Surface Area Formulas

Volume: V = s³; Surface Area: S = 6s²

Cylinder: Volume and Surface Area Formulas

Volume: V= πr²h or V=Bh; Surface Area: S = 2πr² + 2πrh

Simple Diffusion

Passive Transport, No NRG; Down concentration gradient; Small, Nonpolar; No transport protein needed; Examples: CO₂, O₂, N₂, steroids; Small amount of H₂O leak through membrane

Facilitated Diffusion

Passive Transport, No NRG; Down concentration gradient; Small Molecules; Requires transport protein; Channel vs. Carrier protein; Example: water, Na+, K+, Ca²⁺

Active Transport

Requires input of NRG; Against concentration gradient; Requires transport protein (carrier protein); Example: Na+, K+, Ca²⁺, H⁺

Endocytosis

Import of materials; Phagocytosis: Cellular Eating; Pinocytosis: Cellular Drinking; Receptor-Mediated: Endocytosis

Exocytosis

Export of materials; Rough ER (synthesize) → Golgi complex (package/modification) → Plasma Membrane

Hypertonic Solution

HIGH solute concentration; LOW free water concentration; GAINS water from hypotonic solution

Isotonic Solution

EQUAL solute concentration (as other solution); EQUAL free water concentration (as other solution); Equal water movement into and out of solution

Hypotonic Solution

LOW solute concentration; HIGH free water concentration; LOSES water to hypertonic solution

Endergonic Reaction

Reaction is not spontaneous; ABSORB energy; Example: ADP+ P₁ → ATP

Exergonic Reaction

Reaction is spontaneous; RELEASE energy; Example: ATP → ADP + P₁

Enzymes

Biological catalyst; Speeds up chemical reactions; Reduces the activation energy

Glycolysis

Location: Cytosol; Starting Material: Glucose; Products: 2 Pyruvate, 2 NADH, 2 ATP

Krebs Cycle

Location: Mitochondrial Matrix; Staring Material: Acetyl CoA; Products: 2 CO₂, 3 NADH, 1 FADH2 , 1 ATP

Oxidative Phosphorylation

Location: Mitochondrial Cristae; Starting Material: NADH/FADH2 (electrons); Product: ATPS; Two Parts: Electron Transport Chain & Chemiosmosis

Chemiosmosis

ATP Synthase uses proton gradient; Synthesizes ATP

Light Reactions

Location: Thylakoid Membrane; Starting Material: Water (electrons), Photons (energy); Products: ATP & NADPH

Linear Electron Flow

PS I & PS II; Synthesizes ATP & NADPH

Cyclic Electron Flow

PS I ONLY; Synthesizes ATP ONLY

Calvin Cycle

Location: Stroma; Starting Material: 3 CO₂, 9 ATP, 6 NADPH; Products: G3P

Ligand

binds to receptor; Causes confirmational shape change

Steroid Hormone

Release: Simple Diffusion; Receptor: Intracellular; Example: Testosterone, Estrogen

Protein Hormone

Release: Exocytosis; Receptor: Extracellular; Example: Insulin

Transduction

Signaling cascades relay signals from receptors to cell targets, often amplifying the incoming signals

Mitosis

Diploid; 1; 1; Diploid; 2; Identical; Does not occur; Does not occur

Meiosis

Diploid; 1; 2; Haploid; 4; Genetically Distinct; Occurs in Prophase I; Occurs in Metaphase I

G1 (Gap Phase 1)

Duplication of cell organelles; Synthesis of proteins, RNA, and building blocks

S (Synthesis)

Replication of genetic material; Synthesis of proteins and centrosomes

G2 (Gap Phase 2)

Synthesis of proteins and RNA; Makes organelles; Reorganizes cellular contents

Cytokinesis

Division of the cytoplasm

G₁ Checkpoint

During G₁, determines whether to complete the cell cycle; Adequate reserves; Check for DNA damage. If do not pass, enter G₀ (nondividing state)

G₂ Checkpoint

Check all DNA replicated and not damaged. If detect problems with DNA, the cell cycle is halted, to complete DNA replication or repair the damaged DNA.

M Checkpoint

Check sister chromatids attached to the spindle microtubules

Complete Dominance

Homozygous dominant and heterozygous look the same

Codominance

Heterozygous is both dominant traits in organism

Incomplete Dominance

Heterozygous is a blend between the two dominant traits

Monohybrid

Heterozygous for ONE trait

Dihybrid

Heterozygous for TWO traits

Autosomal Inheritance

Allele is located on an autosome (non-sex chromosome)

Sex-Linked Inheritance

Allele is located on a sex chromosome

Maternal Inheritance

Allele is located on the DNA found in a mitochondrial or chloroplast

Linked Genes

Genes located on the same chromosome closely together

Central Dogma

DNA → RNA → Polypeptide

DNA Location

Eukaryotes: nucleus; Prokaryotes: nucleoid

DNA Structure

Eukaryotes: multiple linear; Prokaryotes: single circular

Helicase

unwinds the DNA strands

Topoisomerase

relaxes supercoiling it in front of the replication fork.

Primase

synthesizes the RNA primer (DNA polymerase requires RNA primers to initiate DNA synthesis).

DNA polymerase

synthesizes new strands of DNA continuously on the leading strand and discontinuously on the lagging strand.

Ligase

joins the fragments on the lagging strand.

DNA Make-Up

nitrogenous base (A, T, C, G), pentose sugar (deoxyribose), & phosphate group

Purine

double ring structure

Pyrimidine

single ring structure

Base Pair Rules

A & T with 2 H bonds; C & G with 3 H bonds

DNA Directionality

Read 3' to 5'; Synthesize 5' to 3'

RNA Polymerase

synthesizes mRNA molecules in the 5' to 3' direction by reading the template DNA strand in the 3' to 5' direction.

Promoter

site where RNA polymerase binds to start transcription

Transcription Factors

activators/inhibitors to turn on/off gene expression

5' Guanine Cap

signals the "start" of the mRNA transcript for ribosome to bind & facilitates export from nucleus

Poly-A Tail

inhibits degradation from hydrolytic enzymes in cytosol

Splicing

removal of introns from pre-mRNA transcript

Point Mutations

Mutation at one nucleotide base pair

Silent Mutation

no change in amino acid (AA)

Missense Mutation

change from one AA to another AA

Nonsense Mutation

change from AA to STOP codon

Frameshift Mutation

insertion/deletion of 1 or 2 nucleotide base pairs; shifts the reading frame for codons

Promoter in Operons

Site when RNA polymerase binds

Operator in Operons

Site when repressor binds

Repressible Operon

Operon synthesizes tryptophan; Starts: ON; Repressor: INACTIVE

Inducible Operon

Operon synthesizes enzymes to break down lactose; Starts: OFF; Repressor: ACTIVE

Gel Electrophoresis

Separate molecules based on size and charge

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

Makes multiple copies of DNA fragments