AT Psych U3 - Memory and Cognition

Problem solving

active efforts to discover what must be done to achieve a goal that is not readily attainable

What are the barriers to problem solving?

• Irrelevant information

• Functional fixedness

• Mental set

• Unnecessary constraints

Irrelevant information

Focusing on details that doesn’t matter, leading to faulty solutions

ex) extra numbers in a word problem mislead you

Functional fixedness

Inability to see new uses for objects beyond their usual function

ex) can’t see a shoe as a hammer

Mental set

Persisting in using problem-solving strategies that worked in the past

ex) using the same math equation even if there might be simpler ones now

Unnecessary constraints

Imposing rules/limits that don’t exist

ex) connect 9 dots! → people often don’t connect outside the square

Insight

Moment of discovering the correct solution to a problem after struggling with it for a while

ex) “AHA!” moment

What are the approaches to problem solving?

• Trial and error

• Algorithm

• Heuristics

• Forming subgoals

• Searching for analogies

• Changing the representation

• Incubation

Trial and error

Trying multiple solutions until one works

Heuristics

Using a general rule of thumb that is usually correct, not guaranteed

• availability heuristics → judging probabilities based on how easily examples come to mind

• representative heuristics → judging probabilities based on how well something fits a prototype

Algorithm

A step-by-step, logical solution that guarantees a solution, although tedious

Forming subgoals

Breaking a problem into smaller steps

ex) writing essay outline → draft → edit

Searching for analogies

Using a past similar problem to solve a new one

ex) learning viola based on violin principles

Changing the representation

Interpreting the problem differently (mathematically, graphically, verbally, spacially)

Incubation

Solutions unconsciously & suddenly surface for problem after not thinking about the problem

Difference between incubation and insight

Incubation: taking a break from the thought

Insight: consciously thinking about the thought 

What are the decision-making methods?

• Algorithm

• Heuristics

  • availability

  • representative

• Ignoring base rates

• Conjunction fallacy

Ignoring base rates

Tendency to ignore general statistical information (base rates) and focus instead on specific, vivid detail

• error: neglect statistics & under/overestimate probability

Conjunction fallacy

Belief that two events occurring together is more likely than one event occurring alone

• ex) Mark is a programmer & runs a tech company → more believable/probable

Encoding methods

• elaboration

• visual imagery

• dual-coding theory

• structural encoding

• phonemic encoding

• semantic encoding

What are the three different levels of processing?

• structural encoding → shallow

  • physical attributes 

• phonemic encoding → intermediate

  • what the word sounds like

• semantic encoding → semantic

  • meaning of the stimulus

Elaboration

Linking of a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding → supports long-term memory

ex) david bowie spider → looks like him

Visual imagery

creation of visual images to represent the words to be remembered

ex) david bowie spider → looks like him

Dual-coding theory

Memory is enhanced by forming both semantic and visual codes since either can lead to recall

Motivation to remember (MTR)

When MTR is high (information is perceived to be important), people are likely to put in more effort to memorize it

Ways to enrich encoding

• elaboration

• visual imagery

• dual-coding

• motivation to remember

What are the types of memories stored?

• sensory memory

• short-term memory (STM)

Sensory memory

Very brief storage of sensory information in its original sensory form → lasts a fraction of a second

Short-term memory (STM)

Limited capacity store that maintains ~7 unrehearsed information for about 20 seconds

• rehearsal - repeating info to keep it in STM/transfer to LTM

• chunking

Working memory

A memory that “works” → not only stores information temporarily, but can also process it

(storage + processing)

Working memory capacity (WMC)

A person’s ability to hold and manipulate information in conscious attention

• higher WMC → better multitasking

Long-term memory (LTM)

Unlimited capacity store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time

• flashbulb memories also last long!!

Flashbulb memories

unusually vivid and detailed recollections of momentous events

ex) remembering the moment of 9/11 crash

How do we organize information for encoding?

• Chunking - organizing items into a manageable unit

• Hierarchies - complex information broken down into subcategories

How is knowledge represented in memory?

• Categories

  • Clustering

  • Conceptual hierarchy

• Schemas

  • mental frameworks that influence our memory (ex. remembering a dentist’s office)

• Semantic network

Clustering

A way of organizing information through grouping similar information in the same group

Semantic network

A way of representing knowledge as a web of interconnected concepts and links

What is encoding?

The process of getting information into your memory

What helps us retrieve information?

• tip-of-the tongue

• retrieval cues

• context cues

Tip-of-the tongue

Temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it’s out of reach

Retrieval cues

Stimuli that help gain access to memories

ex) hints, related information, partial recollections

Context cues

Stimuli that trigger memory (smell, taste, sight)

Retrieval cues vs. context cues

• Retrieval cues are any types of stimuli that helps trigger the recall of memory – can be external or internal

• Context cues are a specific TYPE of retrieval cues that puts you in the same environment/context as encoding

  • ex) taking a test in the same corner of the room helps you focus 

Memory construction

When retrieving memories, we filter or fill in missing pieces of information → memories are reconstructions of the past that may be distorted

Misinformation effect

Phenomenon that occurs when participants’ recall of an event they witness is altered by introducing misleading post-event information

ex) car lightly bumped into it, but others say it "smashed” → distorts their recall

Source amnesia

Attributing an event to the wrong source that we experienced, heard, read, or imagined

ex) you remember a shocking scene in a book but can’t remember which book

Why do we forget?

• interference theory

  • retroactive

  • proactive

• retrieval failure

• encoding failure

• motivated forgetting

• repressed memories

Storage decay

Memories fade if not used over time

Forgetting curve (Ebbinghaus curve)

Memories are intially rapidly forgotten, then levels off

Motivated forgetting vs. repressed memories

• Motivating forgetting is actively forgetting/pushing down an unpleasant memory 

  • ex) forgetting about a bad test grade

• Repressed memories is more of a defense mechanism, where the memory is pushed deep in the unconscious mind to protect the individual from distress

  • may resurface later → ex) in therapy sessions

Retrograde amnesia

Loss of memories from before injury/trauma 

Anterograde amnesia

Inability to form new memories after injury

Consolidation

Gradual process of stabilizing memories in long-term storage

Long-Term Pontentiation (LTP)

Strengthening synaptic connections through repeated activation → basis of learning

• neurons that fire together wire together

Neurogenesis

Creation of new neurons

Declarative (explicit) memory

Recalling facts, events, and consciousness (ex. day of my best friend’s birthday)

• hippocampus & frontal lobes

Nondeclarative (implicit) memory

Recalling skills & procedures (ex. riding a bike for the first time

• cerebellum

Semantic memory

General knowledge & concepts (ex. we know 2+2=4)

Episodic memory

Time-stamped personal experiences (ex. your last summer vacation)

Prospective memory

Remembering to perform actions in the future 

ex) take medicines at 8 PM

Retrospective memory

Remembering past information/events

ex) recalling what you studied yesterda

Mnemonic devices

Memory aids like acronyms, imagery, and rhymes

• MAGA…

Serial position effect

Tendency to recall first & last items best in a list

• primary effect → better recall of first items

• recency effect → better effect of last items

Method of Loci

Memory of associating items to familiar locations

• ex) you need to buy bananas → put banana carpets on your front porch