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list the oxidation numbers
group 1 - 1
group 2 - 2
hydrogen 1 (Unless its H2O2)
Oxygen - -2
Fluorine - -1
Chlorine - -1
explain boyles law (P1V1=P2V2)
volume of an ideal gas is inversely proportional to its volume at constant temp
explain charles law (V1/T1 = V2/T2)
volume of an ideal gas at constant pressure is directly proportional to absolute temperature
explain gay-lussac’s law (P1/T1 = P2/T2)
Volumes of gases at constant temp and pressure are in simple ration of each other
what is avogadros law (V1/n1 =V2/n2)
when P and T are constant, all have the same number of molecules
What is the kinetic molecular theory (KMT)?
pressue = collisions of particles on the wall of the container
do not exert force on each other
what is effusion of gasses?
gas molecules going through a small evacuated chamber (pinhole).
what is diffusion of gasses?
migration of gas molecules as a result of the mixing o two gases
What are real gasses? How do they differ from ideal gasses? Why do we not use pv=nrt?
behave at low pressure unlike ideal which behaves at high pressure
they attract other particles
because pv is not equal to nrt anymore as they include corrected pressure, volume and constants
what happens when a piston pushes down on a cylinder? Is work done on the system or the surroundings?
work is done on the system
if V2-V1 is negative, work is done on the system
if V2-V1 is positive, work is done on the surroundings
what is internal energy? (u or E)
sum of potential and kinetic energy (q+w)
what is enthalpy?
the internal energy of the system +work (H=E+PV)
how do you change the KE of an ideal gas?
change the temperature
what is molar heat capacity?
energy required to raise the temp of 1 mol of a substance
what is a state function?
a system that remains the same no matter what path you take
change in energy may be different but the answer is the same
what is a calorimetry?
used to measure heat absorbed or released in a chemical reaction by measuring the change in temperature insulated in water
What is Hess’ Law?
enthalpy remains the same no matter where you go/what steps you take
describe the components of electromagnetic waves
transport energy through empty space in a propagating electric field and magnetic field
travels until its absorbed
change in magnetic field = change in electrical field
self-propogates
How is light a wave? Describe it
diffraction
diffraction is when electromagnetic radiation is scattered from a regular array of objects
whats contructive interference? Whats destructive interference?
constructive - when the peaks and troughs line up to make a bright area and increase intensity
destructive - when the peaks and troughs cancel each other out to make a dark spot and decrease intesity
Why is C (constant for the speed of light) not constant?
light travels slower in water than in any other medium
What does HHS and LLL describe in wavelengths?
high energy, high frequency, small wavelength
low energy, low frequency, low wavelength
What is black body radiation?
radiation that is absorbed and is emitted at certain wavelengths
what is quanta?
that the blackbody can absorb and emit packets of energy (Quanta)
what is the photoelectric effect?
when a photon is shone onto a metal surface, it causes an electron to eject out from the metal
Intensity doesn’t matter - it relies on frequency
requires minimum frequecy
Why is Bhors model suitable for electrons from hydrogen, He, Li, and Be but not other elements as electrons go from ground state to excited state?
fails to show the emission of more than one electron
Are electrons waves?
Yes they are, they are standing waves
cannot have any frequency that you want as the ends are fixed and have nodes
form interference patterns
What is the quantum n?
principal
1,2,3…
determines size and energy level
What is the quantum l?
angular momentum
0, n-1
determines 3D shape
0=s, 1=p, 2=d, 3=f
What is the quantum ml?
magnetic
-1, 0, 1…
orientation of orbitals
What is the quantum ms?
spin
+1/2, -1/2
what are the two exceptions to electron configuration?
chromium and copper
4s13d5 and as1sd10 are more stable rather than having a 4s2 shell full
what is ionization energy? What does the trend look like?
energy needed to remove an electron
bottom left hand side and goes diagonally up to the right
what is electron affinity? whats the trend?
energy change to add an electron
increases up and to the right
how is radius size change?
increases when you go down a group and decreases moving left to right
what is lattice energy?
converting from a solid to a gas
larger the ion, lower the lattice energy
why are triple bonds stronger than single?
because electrons are held closer together to the nuclear which causes then to be shorter and stronger
list the bond angles of linear, trigonal planer, trigonal bipyramidal, tetrahedral, octahedral
linear - 180
trigonal planer - 120
trigonal bipyramidal - 120, 90
tetrahedral - 109.5
octahedral - 90, 180
why do orbitals overlap?
increase of electron probability
name the % of s and p in sp3, sp2, sp
sp3 - 25%s 75%p
sp2 - 33%s 67%p
sp - 50%s 50%p
describe the orientation of sigma bonds
head to head overlap
describe the orientation of pi bonds
side by side overlap
name the 3 types of intramolecular forces
ionic
covalent
metallic
why cant ions get infinitely close
intermolecular distance
name the 6 types of intermolecular forces
ion dipole
dipole dipole
h bonding
LDF
induced dipoles
ion induced
what is ion dipole?
when an ion is attracted to a molecule
what dipole - dipole?
attraction between two POLAR molecules
what is H Bonding
when H is attached to NOF and has a lone pair
what is LDF
attraction between two non-polar molecules
what is induced dipole
forcing an attraction between polar-polar or nonpolar-nonpolar when they have a weak attraction
what is ion induced dipole
forcing an ion to with weak attraction to a non-polar/polar molecule
rank all 6 intermolecular forces from greatest strength to least amount of strength
ion dipole
h bonding
dipole dipole
ion induced dipole
induced dipole
LDF
what is the strength of covalent bonds and intermolecular attraction?
covalent bonds are STRONG bonds
intermolecular forces are WEAK
what prevents liquids and solids from being heated
intermolecular forces
intermolecular forces are strong enough to keep them from expanding significantly
why are liquids and solids less compressible
little empty space between molecules
describe fluidity
gravity causes molecules to move/fallan opening is left free
the next molecule/closes molecule moves into the opening and repeats
what is an amorphous solid?
a substance that lacks an ordered internal structure
why is a water droplet spherical
uneven distribution of molecular forces
surface molecules are pulled inwards
inner molecules are pulled in all directions
what is adhesion? What is cohesion?
cohesion is the attraction of like molecules that cause a net attraction on the surface
adhesion is the attraction of unlike molecules, which when something is polar and is dropped onto a water droplet it will disperse out
what is surface tension?
resistance of a liquid to an increase in its surface area
whats the difference between a non-wettable surface and a wettable surface
non-wettable: when the surface tension dominates the attractive force on the surface
wettable: when the attractive forces of the surface is greater than the surface tension of the water
what is viscocity?
the resistance to flow
liquids with higher intermolecular forces and complex molecules have high viscosity
viscosity is temperature dependent as increased molecular motion disruptions disrupt molecular interactions
name the three types of solids
crystalline
polycrystalline
amorphous
name difference between crystalline and amorphous solids
crystalline: definite melting points, rigid, definite shape, incompressible
amorphous: no definite geometrical shape, wide range of fusion points,
what is anisotropic and isotropic
anisotropic: their mechanical propteries depend on the way they’re measured
isotropic: similar physical properties in all directions as that are arranged in a random matter
whats the smallest repeating unit of a lattice called?
unit cell
describe differences of evaporation and boiling
evap: when molecules are able to leave the solution
boil: when bubbles form in the solution and increases vapor pressure
whats the boiling point of a solution
when the vapour pressure is equal to 1atm
what is a phase diagram?
phases of a pure substance as a function of temp and p
what is the critical point?
when it is a fluid (liquid and gas propteries)
what is the triple point
when it exists in all three states
why is the phase diagram of water different than a pure substance?
the solid form of water (ice) is less dense than water in its liquid form because of its hexagonal lattice structure shape
what’s the difference between immiscible and miscible solutions
immiscible - solutions that do not mix due to different intermolecular bonds
miscible - solutions that mix due to similar intermolecular forces
describe the formation of a liquid
solute breaks IMF bonds - endo
solvent breaks IMF bonds - endo
solvent and solute molecules join - exo
what if you delta H is greater than delta H 1+2
your solution is heterogenous(non ideal solution)
how does IMF effect solutbility?
if unlike substances are mixed, their bonds actually cause MORE ORDER than disorder
whats the relationship between concentration and pressure
proportional related
whats the relationship between concentration and temp? Why?
inversely related
increase in temp causes molecules to escape from the solution
why we keep soda in the fridge as pressure allows more gas into the solution
in ideal solutions, forces between solvent molecules are _____ than solute and solvent
equal
requires the same energy for solvent molecules to break away
what happens to vapour pressure when solute is added
lowers as the solute begins to take up more space and won’t allow molecules to leave the solution
what does weak A-B mean? What does strong A-B mean?
weak A-B: positive deviation with weak IMF
strong A-B: Negative deviation with strong IMF, lower vapour pressure
what are colligative properties of a solution
boiling point elevation
freezing point depression
osmotic pressure
why is van’t hoff factors slightly lower?
ions do not dissociate 100% and therefore still remain in pairs
what do nuclear changes affect?
alter number of protons in a nucleus of an atom
AKA nuclear transmutation
what do nuclear reactions involve?
involve protons and neutrons
atomic number changes
different isotopes behave differently
small amount of matter is converted to energy
what is radioactive decay?
when natural isotopes spontaneously alter the number of protons to become more stable
what are the 4 particles and their identity?
alpha - helium nucleus
beta - electron
beta (+) - positron
gamma - high energy photon
what is alpha decay, beta decay, positron, and electron capture
alpha: Alpha particle is ejected out
beta: neutron becomes a proton by ejecting an electron
positiron: When positrons are emitted
electron capture: draws inner core electrons into the nucleus causing a proton turn into a neutron
What happens when attractive forces (Nuclear) And repulsive (ELectrostatic) are not balenced?
atom undergoes radioactive decay to become balanced
what is the belt of stability?
when N+Z where anything over or under the curve undergoes decay to stablize it
When elements get heavier, what happens in relation to the protons
the heavier it is, the more protons required in the nucleus
describe how nuclides over 82 decay? Describe how nuclides under 82 decay?
heavy - alpha decay to reduce atomic number
neutron rich - beta decay
proton rich - positron decay
what is radiometric dating?
using principals of half life to predict rock formation
what is artificial radioactivity?
induce bombardment of certain nuclei with atoms produced by nuclear reaction or particle accelerators
what are the 4 particles in artificial radioactivity?
neutron - uncharged nucleon
proton - hydrogen nucleus
deutron - nucleas of 2H
Positron - positivley charged ion
what is nuclear fission
when neutrons are used into creating nuclear reactions
chain reactions - when another neutron initiates a series of more reaction
What happens when something is fissionable? How do they maintain it?
cannot undergo nuclear fission
they keep material under critical mass (min mass)
what kinds of hydrogens can nuclear fission make?
deuterium and tritium
give examples of natural radiation
UV rays
visible light
infrared
microwaves
radio and TV rays
give examples of ionizing energy
xrays
gamma rays
alpha and beta
delta