Neuroscience Lecture Notes: Nervous System, Cells, Neurotransmitters, and Pharmacology

A comprehensive set of Q&A flashcards covering nervous system anatomy, cells, neurotransmitters, and psychopharmacology.

What are the two main divisions of the nervous system?

Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).

What structures make up the CNS?

Brain and spinal cord.

What structures make up the PNS?

Cranial nerves, spinal nerves, autonomic nervous system.

What happens if one segment of the spinal cord is damaged?

Loss of sensation/function below that point; higher damage = greater loss.

What protects the brain and spinal cord?

Skull, meninges (dura, arachnoid, pia), cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), blood supply.

What is CSF and its function?

Plasma-like fluid that cushions brain, prevents nerve misfiring.

Which arteries supply the brain with blood?

Carotid and vertebral arteries.

What are the three main parts of the brain?

Hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain.

What does the medulla control?

Heart rate, breathing, blood pressure; damage usually fatal.

What does the cerebellum control?

Balance, motor control, some cognition and emotion.

What is the function of the thalamus?

Relay station for sensory info, learning, memory.

What is the function of the hypothalamus?

Regulates body functions (temp, eating, sex, rhythms), directs autonomic system.

What is the limbic system responsible for?

Emotion and motivation.

Which lobe handles decision-making/problem solving?

Frontal lobe.

Which lobe processes vision?

Occipital lobe.

Which lobe processes speech/language?

Temporal lobe.

Which lobe integrates sensory information?

Parietal lobe.

What are the three divisions of the autonomic nervous system?

Sympathetic (fight/flight), Parasympathetic (rest/digest), Enteric (digestion).

What are the two main types of nervous system cells?

Glial cells and neurons.

What do astrocytes do?

Transfer nutrients, structural support.

What do oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells do?

Produce myelin (CNS = oligodendrocytes, PNS = Schwann cells).

What do microglia do?

Immune defense, clean up dead cells.

What is the role of myelin?

Insulates axons → faster transmission.

What happens in demyelinating diseases (e.g., MS)?

Myelin loss → slower communication, motor/sensory deficits.

What is the soma?

Neuron cell body; contains nucleus, directs functions.

What do dendrites do?

Receive input from other neurons; more dendrites = more learning/memory.

What does the axon do?

Carries electrical signals to terminals.

What is the function of the neural membrane?

Regulates ion flow → generates action potential.

What are the three types of neurons?

Sensory, motor, interneurons.

How do neurons communicate within themselves?

Electrically, via action potentials.

How do neurons communicate with each other?

Chemically, via neurotransmitters at the synapse.

What happens at the synapse during communication?

NTs released from vesicles → cross synapse → bind to receptors.

How are neurotransmitters cleared from the synapse?

Reuptake, enzyme breakdown, or diffusion.

Difference between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters?

Excitatory increase firing; inhibitory decrease firing.

What is the main excitatory neurotransmitter?

Glutamate.

What is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter?

GABA.

Too much glutamate causes what? Too little?

Too much = seizures; too little = sedation, poor learning.

Too much GABA causes what? Too little?

Too much = sedation; too little = seizures/chaos.

What are the three types of neurochemicals?

Neurotransmitters, neuromodulators, neurohormones.

What is serotonin responsible for?

Mood, sleep, appetite.

What is dopamine responsible for?

Reward, motivation, movement.

What is norepinephrine/epinephrine responsible for?

Heart rate, alertness.

What is acetylcholine responsible for?

Muscle movement, memory.

What are endorphins responsible for?

Pain relief.

What is insulin responsible for?

Nutrient processing.

What is an agonist drug?

Enhances neurotransmitter activity.

What is an antagonist drug?

Blocks/reduces neurotransmitter activity.

How does PCP affect neurotransmission?

Blocks glutamate → disrupts learning.

How does Gabapentin affect neurotransmission?

Enhances GABA → sedative effects.

How does Flumazenil affect neurotransmission?

Blocks GABA → counteracts sedatives (like Xanax).

How does Ibotenic acid affect neurotransmission?

Enhances glutamate → overexcites neurons.

Integrative Connections: How do anatomy, cells, neurotransmitters, and drugs connect?

Anatomy = structure; cells = communication; neurotransmitters = signaling; drugs = alter the nervous system → behavior/mental health outcomes.

Why is understanding neurotransmitters and drugs important for mental health?

Because imbalances and drug effects explain/treat disorders like depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, and addiction.

What are the five sections of the spinal cord?

Cervical, Thoracic, Lumbar, Sacral, Coccygeal

What is the most recently evolved structure(s) of the brain?

Forebrain

What is the responsibilities of the hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain

Hindbrain (motor, vital functions), Midbrain (reflexes, pain, motor), Forebrain (higher thinking, memory, emotion)

What is the nature vs. nurture debate, and why is it considered oversimplified?

The debate asks whether genes (nature) or environment (nurture) determine outcomes. It is oversimplified because both interact constantly.

How do environments influence gene expression?

Environments can turn genes on or off (e.g., stress, nutrition).

How do genes influence the environments we experience?

Genes can influence the environments we end up in (e.g., temperament shaping social relationships).

What is a gene × environment interaction? Provide an example.

A gene × environment interaction occurs when the effect of genes depends on the environment.

How can genes interact with breastfeeding to influence intelligence?

Certain genes + breastfeeding → higher intelligence.

How can genes interact with abuse to influence aggression?

Certain genes + abuse → increased aggression.

How can parents give both their genes and their environments to children?

Parents pass on both genes and the environment influenced by those genes.

What is a genotype?

An individual’s genetic makeup (DNA)

What are genes?

Segments of DNA that code for traits

What are alleles? Explain how they come in pairs.

Different versions of a gene, inherited in pairs (one from each parent)

What is a phenotype?

Observable traits (physical or behavioral)

How do alleles and environment interact to produce a phenotype?

Phenotype results from the interaction of alleles and environment

What does heritability measure?

How much of the variability in a trait is due to genetic differences

Why can’t heritability be used to describe individuals?

It describes populations, not individuals

Why is heritability higher when environments are more similar?

Genetic differences explain more of the variability

How have twin studies contributed to our understanding of heritability?

Show similarities between identical twins (even raised apart), demonstrating genetic influence

What is epigenetics?

Environmental factors turning genes on/off

How can stressful environments affect children later in life?

Stressful childhoods —> long-term adverse stress responses

What are epigenetic changes in rats, and how to chemicals affect gene expression?

Chemicals can activate or silence genes in rats, altering development.

What role might epigenetics play in evolution?

May help species adapt quickly without genetic mutations

Can epigenetic changes be passed down to future generations?

Yes, some changes can be inherited

What are the major events in prenatal neurological development?

Neurogenesis, cell migration, neural differentiation, axon/dendrite growth, synapse formation, cell/synaptic death, myelination

What is neurogenesis and when does it occur?

Birth of neurons and glia; occurs early in fetal development

About how many neurons are produced per minute during peak fetal development?

250,000 neurons per minute

What happens to neurons during cell migration?

Neurons migrate to their correct brain regions

What is the end result of cell migration (aggregation)?

Cells clustering together to form structures

Neural differentiation

Regular cells become specialized neurons or glia

What are differentiation-inducing factors (DIF’s)

Chemical signals that trigger specialization

Synaptogenesis

Creation of connections (synapses) between neurons

Why is synapse formation critical for thought and functioning?

Necessary for communication, thought, and functioning

When does synapse formation peak?

Between birth and age 4

Why do some neurons die during development?

They are genetically programmed to die if unnecessary

What is the purpose of cell death in brain development?

removes excess neurons, improving efficiency

What is synaptic pruning?

Elimination of unused connections

“Use it or lose it”

Active synapses are kept, inactive ones pruned

What are the risks of losing too many neurons or synapses?

Losing too many can impair brain efficiency and function

When does myelination begin?

20 weeks into fetal development

When does myelination finish?

Continues into early adulthood

Which neurons myelinate first, and which last?

Sensory neurons myelinate first; frontal cortex neurons last

How does myelination explain differences between adolescents and young adults in reasoning and judgment?

Young adults are better at reasoning, judgment, and emotion detection than adolescents because their frontal cortex is more fully myelinated.

What are critical periods in brain development?

specific windows when experiences must occur for proper brain development.

Provide an example of a critical period in human development.

Language development, vision development

What factors make an environment impoverished?

Typical stimulation or interaction

How does lack of social interaction affect brain development?

Social isolation limits synapse formation