POSC 310 Exam 1 Identification Terms

Affective Polarization

• Affect = feelings or emotions towards something

• People are feeling more positively towards people similar to them and more negatively towards people more dissimilar to them

• When it comes to groups like political parties, their attitudes may change because the groups have changed

Aggregate Opinions

the overall distribution or collective pattern of individual opinions within a population on a given issue, candidate, or policy. Instead of focusing on single individuals’ views, it captures how those opinions combine and manifest at the group, community, or national level.

Attitude Structure

When two or more beliefs or opinions held by an individual are in some way or another functionally related.

Condorcet Jury Theorem

If every member has a 50% + epsilon chance of arriving at the “right answer” to some question of importance and everyone arrives at their view independently, this theory says that the probability of a majority arriving at the “right answer” becomes close to certain as the number of people increases, even if epsilon is really small. This means groups of people can arrive at the “right” decision with very high probability as long as each person’s probability of getting it right is greater than 50%. This is known as the Wisdom of Crowds

Free and Fair elections

One of two aspects used to measure the strength of democracy in a country. It means there is no coercion, an equal opportunity, and transparent counting in an election. The standards it are:

• voter registration

• access to reliable information

• fair eligibility to run for office

• fair eligibility to vote

• voters are not intimidated

• free from fraud

• accuracte count

• correct results reported

• and results are respected

These standards being met are important because they improve political efficacy and engagement.

Ideal Democratic Electorate

• Suitable personality structure

• Interest and participation

• Information and knowledge

• Possession of principle

• Accurate observation

• Communication and discussion

• Rationality

• Community interest

Identity Formation

The way one shapes their self-character through assignment or choice:

Assignment:

• Institutional assignment of racial characteristics

• citizenship laws

• naturalization policies

• census

Choice:

• races as a self-characteristic

Identity Prioritization 

The process by which individuals rank or emphasize one aspect of their social or political identity (such as race, religion, gender, class, or party affiliation) over others when making political judgments or engaging in political behavior.

Identity-to-Politics Link

Identities shape political preferences and behaviors but identity is not automatic.

Ideological Polarization

• People are moving away from the middle in their political beliefs

• Extreme views are becoming more common

• Polarization is always a change over time

Immigrant-Related Measures

The aspects that affect the levels of political participation of immigrants:

• Generational status

• Duration of stay in the United States

• Political socialization in the home country

• English language proficiency

• Ethnic residential concentration

• Mobilization over anti-immigrant legislation

• Need to account for citizenship status

Independents

These people have political identity but anti-party in orientation. They abstain from voting along major party lines. If they are leaning they appear partisan

Individual Opinions

The attitudes of a person. They can be unstable and contradictory as many people know little about politics or policy. People have beliefs that are quite evidently wrong. Rational beliefs need to be stable and have systematic patterns.

Intersectionality

The framework that examines how multiple social identities—such as race, gender, class, sexuality, religion, and disability—overlap and interact to shape individuals’ political experiences, opportunities, and disadvantages.

Motivated Reasoning

A “tendency to find arguments in favor of conclusions we want to believe to be stronger than arguments for conclusions we do not want to believe”

• Process where individuals’ desires or goals influence their reasoning process

• Lack objectivity

• Confirms their existing beliefs or preferences

• Related to confirmation bia

Non-Attitudes

The stance of people with no opinions or knowledge answering and having their answers put in public opinions.

Non-response Bias

When people choose to not respond to samples they are chosen to be a part of. This is a pervasive type of bias.

Partisan Polarization

The process (and outcome) in which members of different political parties—most often Democrats and Republicans in the U.S.—move toward increasingly ideologically extreme and opposing positions, with fewer moderates or overlaps between them.

Partisan Voting

When individuals cast their votes primarily based on their party identification (loyalty to a political party) rather than on specific issues, candidates, or campaign events.

Partisanship

The centerpiece of American politics. It is the sense of attachment or belonging that an individual feels for a political party.

Political Attitudes

The opinions, evaluations, and beliefs held by individuals or social groups towards political issues, leaders, or policies. Sources of these beliefs:

Institutional forces

• Political systems

• Electoral systems

• Political parties

• Policies

• Etc

Social & psychological forces

• Lived experiences

• Health

• Emotions

• Personality traits

• Etc.

Political Ideology

A set of ideas, beliefs, values, and opinions for an individual, exhibiting a recurring pattern, that completes deliberately as well as unintentionally over providing plans of action for public policy making in an attempt to justify, explain, contest, or change the social and political arrangements and processes of a political community.

Political Socialization

The process by which individuals develop their political beliefs, values, and behaviors. We learn through:

• school

• media

• family

• peers

• religious institutions

Public Opinion

the aggregate of individual attitudes, beliefs, and positions on specific issues, policies, actions, or political figures, held by a significant portion of the population

Random Sampling

Scientific polling historically relies on this type of sampling. This type of sampling guarantees an accurate result with a high enough sample size. One of the deterrents to accuracy is biased non-response.

Rationality

The level of reasonability of public opinion. It is based on or in accordance with reason or logic.. Two types of analysis: Instrumental and optimal.  Instrumental: choices based on outcomes. Optimal: choosing what you most prefer. It does not mean having the right opinions.

Role of socioeconomic status

Higher levels of this = higher level of political participation i.e. higher education, income, etc.. However, this does not extend to people of color.

Self-Categorization Theory

Individuals categorize themselves as group members, often based on their perceived similarity to a group prototype.

Social Identity Theory

Self-concept and identity are influenced through interpersonal and intergroup interactions. Creates in-groups vs out-groups which can lead to in-group favoritism, stereotypes, and prejudice.

Trust in Government

A relational tie to the government. Citizen judges this of the government to do an expected behavior in a specific context at a specific time. It is measure in two dimensions: Intention/Morality and Competence/Capacity. Intention/Morality is the commitment to act in the interest of the citizen and Competence/Capacity is the ability to deliver in the domain over which the tie is given. Over the years a decline in this has resulted from:

• Political polarization

• Government inefficiency

• Lack of transparency

• Misinformation & fake news

• Institutional corruption

• Economic instability