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Microorganisms
Living entities too small to be seen by the naked eye.
Microbiome
Organisms that stably live on humans.
Pathogenic
Disease causing.
Spontaneous generation
The disproven theory that living organisms can arise from non-living matter.
Louis Pasteur
Disproved spontaneous generation, aseptic technique, pasteurization and fermentation.
Robert Koch
German physician, discovered diseases such as anthrax and cholera.
Edward Jenner
British physician, work with cowpox, term immunity and lead to development of vaccines.
Prokaryotes
No nucleus, DNA in cytoplasm, includes bacteria and archaea.
Eukaryotes
DNA in nucleus, membrane around organelles, includes protists, fungi, plants, animals.
Fungi
Eukaryotes, unicellular or multicellular, includes mold and mushrooms, involved in food, pharmaceuticals, decomposers, and pathogens.
Protozoa
Unicellular, usually motile, can be free entities or hosts.
Algae
Photosynthetic eukaryotes that require light, water, and CO2.
Archaea
Cell wall lacks peptidoglycan, found in extreme environments, includes methanogens, halophiles, and thermophiles.
Bacteria
Single celled, includes bacilli and cocci, has a peptidoglycan layer, can be photosynthetic.
Methanogens
Produce methane as a metabolic byproduct and hate oxygen.
Halophiles
Salt lovers.
Thermophiles
Heat loving.
Viruses
Microscopic, acellular entities with a DNA or RNA core and a protein coat, replicate only in living hosts.
Bacteria (Domain)
Prokaryotic, cell wall made of peptidoglycan, reproduces by binary fission, examples include Escherichia coli and Streptococcus.
Archaea (Domain)
Prokaryotic with unique features, cell wall lacks peptidoglycan, reproduces by binary fission, examples include Halobacterium and Methanogens.
Eukarya (Domain)
Eukaryotic, has a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, more complex than prokaryotes, genetic material is linear DNA within a nucleus, example: humans.
Matter
Anything that has mass.
Atoms
Most basic unit of matter, consisting of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Elements
Pure substances made up of only one type of atom (e.g., hydrogen, carbon).
Acids
Substances that release hydrogen.
Bases
Accept H⁺ ions in a solution (pH > 7).
Buffers
Substances that minimize changes in pH by absorbing or releasing H⁺ ions.
Organic Molecule
Molecules containing carbon, typically found in living organisms.
Functional Groups
Specific groups of atoms within molecules that influence chemical properties and reactions (e.g., hydroxyl, carboxyl).
Macromolecules
Large molecules made up of smaller units, such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids.
Polymer
A large molecule made up of repeating subunits called monomers.
Protons
Positively charged particles found in the nucleus.
Electrons
Negatively charged particles that orbit the nucleus.
Neutrons
Neutral particles found in the nucleus.
Protons
Positively charged
Neutrons
Neutral particles
Atomic Number
Number of protons in an atom, which also equals the number of electrons in a neutral atom.
Mass Number
Sum of protons and neutrons in an atom's nucleus.
Isotopes
Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.
First electron shell capacity
First shell has 2 electrons.
Second and third electron shell capacity
Second and third shells can each hold 8 electrons.
Ionic Bonds
Transfer of electrons between atoms, forming ions. Strong bond in solid form, weaker in water. (e.g., NaCl)
Covalent Bonds
Sharing of electrons between atoms. Very strong bonds. (e.g., H₂O, CO₂)
Nonpolar Covalent Bonds
Equal sharing of electrons.
Polar Covalent Bonds
Unequal sharing of electrons, creating partial charges.
Hydrogen Bonds
Weak bonds between polar molecules. Important in DNA and protein structures.
Buffers
Maintain pH stability by absorbing excess H⁺ or OH⁻ ions.
Bicarbonate buffer system
Helps maintain a pH around 7.4 in blood.
Dehydration Synthesis
Bonds monomers together by removing water.
Hydrolysis
Breaks down polymers by adding water.
Carbohydrates
Organic molecules made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (CH₂O).
Monosaccharides
Simple sugars (e.g., glucose).
Disaccharides
Two monosaccharides linked (e.g., sucrose).
Polysaccharides
Long chains of monosaccharides (e.g., starch, glycogen, cellulose).
Isomers
Same chemical formula but different structural arrangements.
Storage Polysaccharides for Plants
Starch (made of glucose monomers).
Storage Polysaccharides for Animals
Glycogen (made of glucose monomers).
Structural Polysaccharides for Plants
Cellulose (cannot be digested by humans).
Structural Polysaccharides for Animals
Chitin (found in insect exoskeletons).
Lipids
Composed of glycerol and fatty acids.
Fatty Acids
Long hydrocarbon chains that can be saturated or unsaturated.
Triglycerides
Three fatty acids attached to a glycerol molecule.
Saturated Fat
No double bonds, solid at room temp (e.g., butter).
Unsaturated Fat
One or more double bonds, liquid at room temp (e.g., olive oil).
Monounsaturated Fat
One double bond.
Polyunsaturated Fat
Multiple double bonds.
Trans-Fats
Artificially hydrogenated fats that increase shelf life (e.g., margarine).
Proteins
Made of chains of amino acids.
Amino Acid Structure
Central carbon, amino group, carboxyl group, hydrogen atom, and R group (side chain).
Protein Structure Levels
Primary: Sequence of amino acids. Secondary: Alpha-helices and beta-sheets formed by hydrogen bonds. Tertiary: 3D shape formed by interactions of side chains. Quaternary: Multiple polypeptide chains interacting.
Functions of Proteins
Enzymes (e.g., amylase), Structural components (e.g., collagen), Transport (e.g., hemoglobin), Signaling (e.g., hormones).
Nucleic Acids
Store and transmit genetic information.
Components of Nucleic Acids
Made of nucleotides, which consist of a sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base.
Location of Nucleic Acids
Found in all living cells and viruses.
