Psychological Aspects of Human Sexuality Midterm 1 ...

historical perspective

sex has always been tied to religion

what influences sex now

religion, science, courts, media

Enthocentrism

is the belief that your own group or culture is the norm

prehistoric times

signs of fertility in women were worshiped

Ancient Hebrews

procreation, pleasure, and polygamy

sex within marriage seen as good

wife considered property

same sex activity condemned

Ancient Greece

homosexuality, bisexuality, pederasty, prostitution.

Myth - humans as double creatures

pederasty: older men and teen lover

Ancient Rome

- Orgies

- sex between men common

- sex between women uncommon

- women = objects, low social status

Muslims

sex within marriage, no premarital sex, polygamy

Sex = pleasures of life

Abstenance frowned upon

Men had many wives, women only have one husband

Taoists

sexuality and spirituality (yin)

Hindus

sex as virtuous and natural, celebrated within marriage

early christians

sex for procreation only (missionary)

virginity important for marriage

Middle ages

wet dreams caused by having sex with tiny spirits, sexual problems/lust blamed on witchcraft

Protestant Reformation

sex to enhance the marital relationship (extramarital/premarital sex still punished)

Divorce should be allowed

Victorian era

extreme sexual repression

- procreation and men's pleasure

- Chasity belt

sexual revolution

social upheaval in science, music, art, fashion

- Birth control introduced

- Gay rights activism

3 media influences

Cultivation = think that media is reality

Agenda setting = news reporters decide what is important

Social learning = we imitate/model images and characters

similarities across societies

- all societies regulate sex

- Different societies accept different behavior, attitudes - changes over time

- differences across religions and within religions

Freud

psychodynamic theory, libido, Psychosexual stages of development,

Havelock Ellis (1859-1939)

first large scale study on sex - published as "studies in the psychology of sex"

- first to write about homosexuality and transgenderism

Richard Freiherr von Krafft-Ebing

- psychopathia sexualis

- non-procreative sex was a perversion

- 4 categories of sexual perversion

4 categories of sexual perversion

paradoxia

anesthesia

hyperesthesia

paraesthesia

paradoxia

sexual response at the wrong time in life (childhood/old age)

anesthesia

insufficient sexual desire

hyperesthesia

excessive sexual desire

paraesthesia

sexual desire for the wrong goal or object (e.g., fetishes, sadism)

Mangus Hirschfeld

- founded the first sexual research institute

- first large scale sex survey

- first journal dedicated to study of sexuality

- Revolutionary

Alfred Kinsey

- first major published large sex survey

- sexuality scale. prevalence of homosexuality on 7 point scale

- 50% of men have cheated, 26% of women have

- taboo topics for the time

Masters and Johnson

- first to look at physiological sexual response in men and women

intercourse, masturbation in the lab

-four stages of sexual response

4-phase model of sexual response

excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution

Sexual frequency

How frequently people are engaging in sexual behavior

Masturbation (cultural)

Some cultures accepting; others not

Extramarital sex (cultural)

Biggest cultural taboo after incest

Forbidden in about 74% of cultures

same-sex partners (cultural)

occurs in all cultures. not prominent in any culture

Canada vs. US similarities

25% have had a threesome

One night stand

Women report a similar number of lifetime partners (9-10)

Canada vs. US differences

Canadian have sex outdoors more often

American teens are twice as likely to get pregnant

Women are allowed to go topless in Canada

Variations Within a Culture

- Different norms for different subgroups

- Within subcultures (e.g., immigrant communities) attitudes & behavior affected by:

Culture of origin

Acculturation to Canadian culture

- Immigrants to Canada tend to be more conservative

sex average number of lifetime partners (canada)

12

Over 20 partners (canada)

23% of men; 13% of women

lifetime sexual monogamy (canada)

17%

Quebec

-most sexually liberal

-more likely to have sexual intercourse at a younger age, to live as common-laws, and have extramarital sex

- Similar rates of STIs, pregnancy - no more safe

biological perspective

-No behaviour is unique to humans

-less controlled by biology and more psychological factors as we go up the evolutionary scale

Self-expansion

1. People want to expand their experiences and extend their identities

2. This desire for expansion helps explain why we enter relationships with others

3. A relationship is successful when it expands both partner's identities (not when people lose their identity); relationships stagnate when expansion stops (infidelity?)

goals of sex research

basic knowledge, influencing behaviour, inform public policy, inform public opinion

methods of sex research

Surveys

Qualitative Methods (direct observation, content analysis (media))

Experimental Designs

Problems associated with self-report

Purposeful distortion, social desirability

Ability to estimate - participants have limited ability to estimate

Faulty memory

Interpreting the question

Cross-sectional survey methods

give us information about a person at a specific point in time (like a snapshot)

Qualitative Methods

- Intensive investigation of a small group of individuals

- often aims to study a select group of people

- great place to start with research

Direct Observation

Participant observation, Eye tracking, Biological Measures, Laboratory observation

Media Content Analysis

Develop coding scheme

Evolutionary Perspective (Physical attractiveness)

Would argue that humans are concerned with physical attractiveness - indicators of health

Evolutionary Perspective (Parental investment)

parents want their genetic material to succeed

critique of evolutionary perspective

sex is about reproduction - not always true

freud main contribution

brought up sexual conversations in a sexually repressed time

Classical conditioning (Pavlov)

Key concepts: US, UR, CS, CR

Can explain how people develop fetiches

Operant conditioning (Skinner)

Reward or punishment

Primary reinforcement

(Intrinsic - food, sex)

Social learning (Bandura)

Based on the principle of operant conditioning also involves observation

Key concepts: observational learning, identification, imitation, self-efficacy

Cognitive Theories

Perceptions and evaluation of events (thoughts) affect emotions and responses

e.g., "i'm not in the mood", erectile difficulties

Cognitive Schema

Perception of events affected by schema

memory is better if they fit our schemas

Sociological Perspective

Socialization leads to: shared sexual scripts (Script Theory)

Symbolic communication → human nature

4 Types of students in college hookup culture

Enthusiasts (they love it)

Abstainers (they hate it)

Dabblers (they have mixed feelings and experiences)

Strivers (they want to take part but are excluded)

sexual scripts

sexual behaviour is the result of prior learning - most people have a certain scripts that they follow of order of events

Medicalization of sexuality

occurs when certain sexual behaviors or conditions are defined in terms of health and illness and are medically treated

(e.g., viagra, Addyi)

laws influence influence behaviour

Determine social norms,

Mechanisms for social controls,

impose ideology

Heteronormativity theory of low sexual desire in women

Inequitable division of labor

Caregiver mother role to partner

Objectification

Gender norms about sexual initiation

Orgasm gap

heterosexual relationships, 75% of men report always having an orgasm

29% of women have an orgasm

Genital self-image

- attitudes and feelings about genitals

most people are pretty positive

female external genital

vulva - general term for all - mons Pubis, Labia majora, labia minora, Clitoris, Vaginal opening, Vestibule, Perineum, Urethral opening, hymen,

mons pubis (mons veneris)

acts as a cushion and protects the pubic bone, sensitive, lots of nerve

Labia Majora

large folds that hide the others of the genitals, protects the inner part, sensitive and covered with pubic hair

pubic hair theories

1. traps pheromones

2. Protection from friction from sexual activities.

3. To signal sexual maturity

Labia Minora

hairless lips inside the labia majora, joins with the clitoral, when aroused become larger, darker

Bartholin glands

sit at the bottom of the labia minora, not sure what they do - might secrete mucus to help lubricate the vagina

Clitoris

clitoral shaft → two corpora cavernosa (spongy tissue) tissue similar to the penis - engorge with blood

- glans → part that is visible

- clitoral hood → covers the exposed part of the shaft and most of the glans

female genital cutting

Clitoridectomy, excision, infibulation

clitoridectomy

removal of the clitoris

excision

partial or total removal of the clitoris and inner lips

Infibulation

entire removal of the clitoris and vulva - vaginal opening is sutured together and a small passage is left for menstruation

vulvar vestibule

area inside of the labia minora, region around the urethra and vaginal opening

Vulvodynia

chronic pain in the vulvar vestibule - pain when the area is touched (8%)

Perineum

skin and underlying tissues between vaginal opening and anu

urinary tract infaction

prone to bacterial infections due to proximity to vagina and anus

cystitis

inflammation of the bladder

Vaginal Opening

Called the introitus

includes hymen and perineum

Hymen

thin membrane that surrounded or partially covers the vaginal opening.

In some cultures is proven virginity

internal structures

Vestibular bulbs, Vagina, Pubococcygeus muscle (pelvic floor muscles), G-spot, Cervix, Uterus, Fallopian tubes, Ovaries

Vestibular bulbs

two bulbs, one on each side of the vaginal opening, erectile tissue, engorge with blood

Vagina

Fibromuscular tubular tract - 8-10cm deep,

Vaginal mucosa, very few nerve endings but most in the lower third. ph of 4-5 (acidic) - self cleaning

vaginal mucosa

inner liner of the vagina (similar to inside of the mouth) where lubrication occurs during sexual arousal

water-based lube

+ easy to clean up, safe with all sex toys

- rinse off in water, needs to be re-applied, can contain glycerin (type of sugar- can increase yeast infections)

silicone based lube

+ doesn't rinse off in water, lasts much longer without reapplication, better for anal sex/play

- messy, can damage silicone sex toys, taste, stain sheets

oil-based lube

+ lasts forever

- can't be used with sex toys or condoms, really messy and difficult to clean up

Lubricant with women's sexual pleasure

-Water-based lubricants were associated with fewer genital symptoms compared with silicone-based lubricants

-Use of a water-based or silicone-based lubricant was associated with higher ratings of sexual pleasure

Pubococcygeus muscles (PC)

pelvic floor muscles, surrounded the vagina and anus,

G-spot

Soft mass of tissue 2.5-5cm from the vaginal enterance, intense sensation = vaginal orgasm. controversial - hasn't been proven

clitourethrovaginal (CUV) complex

g-spot, all stimulation together that's causing pleasure and a different subjective experience (compared to just clitoris)

Female ejaculation

intense stimulation resulting in the expulsion of fluids from the urethra. 10-40% of females. Low volume of fluid = Skene's glands (female prostate) High volume = urine

Cervix

opening of the cervix = os

lower end of the uterus

Uterus

Where the fertilized ovum implants (Ovum = sperm + egg)

3 layers of the uterus

1. perimetrium - outside layer

2. myometrium - middle layer - very strong

3. endometrium - inside layer

endometriosis

a condition in which patches of endometrial tissue escape the uterus and become attached to other structures in the pelvic cavity - causing pain