APAH: Ancient Rome

essential knowledge of Etruscan and Roman art

Etruscan Art and Roman art is characterized by a pantheon of gods celebrated in large civic and religious buildings

Much ancient writing survives in the fields of literature, law, politics, and business. These documents shed light on Roman civilization as a whole and on Roman art in particular

etruscan art is known mainly through archaeology, literary tradition is mostly lost

etruscan: first major empire in Italy, not all Romans are Etruscan, but most of their culture is

there were numerous city states, but the art is studied as a single genre

etruscan art shows heavy Greek influence among other influences

roman art can be subdivided into the following periods: Republican, Early Empire, Late Empire, Late Antique

roman architecture shows an incredible deal of variety and willingness to experiment

roman art and architecture will be embraced in 17th century Europe

Sarcophagus of the Spouses: (Etruscan)

• Cerveteri, Italy

• terracotta

• funerary

• same time period as the Archaic period in Greece (appropriation)

  • Archaic smile

• in ancient times, a man and woman being depicted together is very rare

  • women had higher status in Etruscan society

• Sarcophagus of a married couple whose ashes are placed (likely high status, but not ruling/governing people)

• affectionate

  • both holding the same thing, planning to feed each other

    • possibly an egg which was the Etruscan symbol for life after death

• concentration and detail is on upper body, less on lower half

  • L shaped turn to the body, unrealistic

Temple of Minerva: (Etruscan)

• Mud brick, wood

• veii, italy

• sacred space

• Minerva: Athena in Italy

  • similar to Parthenon in how they both praise the same god

    • but the columns, pediment, and frieze are different

• Vitruvius recorded the Temple of Minerva’s architecture in his writing

  • none of the Etruscan temples exist today, only his writings survive

• three cell for three separate gods

• highly influenced by Greek temples:

  • wood columns

  • capitals (tuscan order)

  • pediment

Apollo (Apulu): (Temple of Minerva at Veii; Etruscan)

• terracotta

• one of four sculptures that stood on the roof of the Temple of Minerva

• strides forward more than Kouros

• Archaic smile

• may be in battle with Hercules

• artists: could be Vulcan of Veii

Tomb of the Triclinium: (Etruscan)

• Tarquinia

• tufa (mud brick) and fresco: takes white wet plaster, smear on wall, take dyed egg white pigments to paint fast while plaster is still wet

• women are light-fair skinned (meant to be inside) while men are dark skinned (meant to be outside

  • appropriated from Greek

• many tombs still exist, believed to be heavily influenced by Greek paintings (none exist)

• piece is named after a dining table, one appears in the painting

• ceiling = polychrome checkerboard pattern; circles = symbolize time

• Etruscan funeral rites were festive and seen as a last time to enjoy a meal with the deceased before crossing over to the afterlife

• overall the tomb suggests a celebration of the dead, dancing figures on the right and left walls, musical instruments

• only Etruscan paintings that survive are funerary and on tomb walls

House of the Vettii: (1st Roman)

• stone and fresco

• Pompeii

• Roman town home (villa = countryside, town home = city)

• peristyle: four stoas and open sky

  • refuge of nature from the city; allows light into the garden but keeps town around them out

• atrium: skylights where water would fall through to the basin underneath

• axial plan: someone entering at the atrium can see the peristyle garden in the back

• cubicula (rooms): on all sides of the atrium

• heavy greek influence/appropriation

• helps understand how Romans decorated their interiors

• in triclinium (dining room) a number of paintings exist in good condition

  • three styles of Pompeian painting, this is the 4th style which combines all three

    • 1: painted rectangular squares

    • 2: large mythical scenes and landscapes

    • 3: small scenes/ images set in a field of color and framed by columns

Head of a Roman Patrician: (Roman Republic)

• marble

• extreme realistic portrait called “Veristic” 

• influence of Hellenistic art of Greece

• Roman patrician/senator (upper ruling class)

  • high status, but not idealized

• did not want youthful and beautiful people running the government, wanted more experience (wisdom)

• realism conveys a seriousness of a mind known to Romans as “gravitas”

  • Gravitas can only come with experience

• youth was valued for beauty in arts, but not for governing authority

• likely sculpted after death

• only characteristic of Republic period

Augustus of Primaporta: (Roman Empire)

• original was in bronze, in marble

• first real roman emperor

• sending message that their king was young, powerful, and strong

  • not showing age and wisdom, youthful strength

• symbolizing that Augustus will bring a golden age to Rome (Pax Romana)

• cupid: son of Venus, aligning with the gods, divine right

• dolphin: naval battle that was won, ending civil war and establishment of Augustus reign

• heavily appropriated from Canon of Polykleitos

• contraposto pose

• youthfulness, strong stetted out arm speaking to troops, stance and modeling after Doryphoros all point to a message of leader

• cuirass (breastplate): covered in propaganda messages

  • Augustus has the gods on his side, he is a military victor, bringing of the Pax Romana lasting 200 years

• message: sun will shine on Rome under the role of Octavian Augustus

• purpose: propaganda to unite the empire after the civil war

roman arches

• improvement on post and lintels

• can bare an extremely heavy load

• arch: series of wedge shaped stones, smaller at the bottom and wider at the top, the wider top does not pass through a narrower bottom

  • allows major amounts of weight to rest on top

• barrel vault: arch continues in a tunnel like fashion

• groin vault: two barrel vaults intersect

• romans will build enormous billings because they support an incredible amount of weight (colosseum, pantheon)

Colosseum: (Roman Empire)

• stone, concrete, travertine

• patrons: Emperors Vespasian and son Titus (Flavian Emperors)

• vast barrel vaults and groin vaults

• Rome was a multiethnic society

• meant for entertainment/spectacles

  • gladiator combat

  • animal hunts

  • recreated battles

• uniquely Roman, but putting two theaters into one is Greek

  • use of doric, ionic, and corinthian columns

• 1st story = tuscan, 2nd story = ionic, 3rd story corinthian

• small square window looking holes at the top

understanding roman forums

“forums” were found throughout every major city in the empire. Essentially the same concept as a Greek agora

the forum in Rome was the most impressive 

center of roman business and government (Athenian Agora)

locations for worship and sacrifice to the local gods

around the sides of the forums would be bathhouses, markets, and government buildings

Forum of Trajan: (Roman Empire)

• architect: Apollodorus of Damascus

• patron: Emperor Trajan

• stone masonry with concrete (uniquely roman) and timber

• forums for many emperors, this is Trajan’s forum

• apse: half circle at the end of the basilica

  • basilicas were originally courthouses/government houses

  • has an axial plan

• large central plaza surrounded by stoa-like buildings on each flank

  • sort of massive peristyle, not technically a peristyle

• included Basilica of Ulpia and Markets of Trajan

• Market:

  • multilevel mall like structure

  • semi circular interior was a series of groin and barrel vaulting

  • significant because it was another example of multi-storied architecture found in Rome like the Flavian Amphitheater

Column of Trajan: (Forum of Trajan; Roman Empire)

• funerary, Trajan’s ashes are at the base of the column

• stood behind the Basilica Ulpia between the Greek and Roman libraries

• 128 foot high narrative telling the conquering the Dacians

• low relief to deter shadowing

• 2,500 different figures, 23 registers circling the column

Pantheon: (Roman Period)

• concrete with stone facing, granite, and pumice

• original would have had two stoas on the side, a lot of steps leading to the entrance, would have not been able to see the circle from the outside

• patron: originally Augustus and Marcus Agrippa but early structure destroyed

  • Pantheon built by Emperor Hadrian

• corinthian capitals on portico (porch)

• two pediments, one in front of the other

• walls of the cupola (dome) are 20 feet thick at base and become thinner as they rise

• oculus (opening at the top) 27 feet wide, allows for sunlight to move across the temple

• roof-ceiling is pumice (light volcanic rock, floats) covered with concrete

• interior is based on a circle

• seven niches in the walls for statues of the gods

• as Rome conquered more regions they wanted to honor the gods of the conquered (massive temple to all gods of the empire)

• has an apse inside

Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus: (Roman Empire)

• horror vacui: fear of open space

  • extremely crowded surface with figures piled on top of each other

• Pax Romana is over

• Barbarians: one who speaks another language (have beards)

• Christianity is crowing, had a different burial practice (tomb with body intact)

  • prior to this, Romans always cremated

  • things are changing with barbarians coming in and different religious practices

• Sarcophagus with a lid, has imagery all throughout it

• figures lack individuality; expressing confusion of battle

• Roman army defeats barbarians (Romans have no beards)

• youthful Roman general at top center without weapons or helmet showing that he is invincible and needs to protection

• significance: Pax Romana has ended and Rome is at war. Rome begins weakening. Influence of changes in religion, Christians kept the body intact, moving away from cremation