AP Psychology: Language and Memory

Memory

The process that allows us to record, store, and later retrieve experiences and information.

Encoding

Getting information into the system by translating it into a neural code that your brain processes.

Storage

Retaining information over time.

Retrieval

Accessing stored information.

Sensory Memory

Briefly holds incoming sensory information; information is held in different sensory registers for different senses.

Iconic Store

The visual sensory register that holds information for a fraction of a second.

Echoic Store

The auditory sensory register that holds information for several seconds.

Short Term Memory

Stage of memory with a limited capacity and duration, holding information for about 20 seconds.

Long Term Memory

A vast library of more durable stored memories with essentially unlimited storage capacity.

Serial Position Effect

The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle items.

Primacy Effect

The tendency to better remember terms at the beginning of a list.

Recency Effect

The tendency to better remember terms at the end of a list.

Effortful Processing

Encoding that is initiated intentionally and requires effort.

Automatic Processing

Encoding that occurs without conscious effort.

Decay Theory

The belief that memories fade over time if not accessed.

Repression

The blocking of distressing memories from conscious awareness according to Freud.

Interference Theory

The theory that forgetting occurs because memories compete with each other.

Proactive Interference

When older memories interfere with the retrieval of newer memories.

Retroactive Interference

When newer memories interfere with the retrieval of older memories.

Tip-of-the-Tongue State

The sensation of knowing a memory but being unable to access it.

Amnesia

A significant memory loss due to injury, illness, or psychological trauma.

Retrograde Amnesia

The inability to remember information before the onset of amnesia.

Anterograde Amnesia

The inability to form new memories after the onset of amnesia.

Dementia

A general term for memory impairment and loss of cognitive function resulting from brain degeneration.

Alzheimer’s Disease

A common form of dementia characterized by forgetfulness and confusion due to brain degeneration.

Misinformation Effect

The phenomenon where a person's memory of an event is altered by misleading information.

Source Confusion

When we misremember the circumstances of a memory.

Encoding Specificity Principle

Memory is enhanced when the conditions at retrieval match the conditions at encoding.

Context Dependent Memory

Easier recall of information when in the same environment as when it was encoded.

State-Dependent Memory

Retrieval abilities are enhanced when internal states during retrieval match those during learning.

Mood-Congruent Recall

The tendency to recall memories that are congruent with one's current mood.

Concept

A mental grouping of related items.

Prototype

The most typical and familiar member of a category or class.

Convergent Thinking

The process of seeking a single correct answer.

Divergent Thinking

The process of generating multiple possible answers or solutions.

Belief Bias

The tendency to abandon logical reasoning in favor of one's beliefs.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to seek evidence that confirms existing beliefs.

Overconfidence

The tendency to overestimate the correctness of one's beliefs or abilities.

Functional Fixedness

The inability to see alternative uses for an object due to its conventional usage.

Algorithms

Formulas or precise sequences of procedures that guarantee a solution.

Heuristics

General problem-solving strategies or rules of thumb that may not guarantee a correct answer.

Representative Heuristic

Using prototypes to make judgments about the probability of outcomes.

Availability Heuristic

Basing judgments on how easily information comes to mind.

Deductive Reasoning

Reasoning from general principles to specific instances.

Inductive Reasoning

Reasoning from specific facts to general principles.

Phonemes

The smallest units of speech sound in a language that can signal a difference in meaning.

Morphemes

The smallest units of meaning in a language.

Syntax

The rules governing the order of words in sentences.

Semantics

The study of meaning in language.

What is the first step in making a memory?

The first step is encoding, which involves translating information into a neural code that your brain processes.

What is the second step in making a memory?

The second step is storage, which involves retaining information over time.

What is the third step in making a memory?

The third step is retrieval, which is accessing

The basketball players could remember the main points of their coach’s halftime talk, but not her exact words. This is because they encoded the information

Semantically

When someone provides his phone number to another person, he usually pauses after the area code and again after the next three numbers. This pattern underscores the importance of which memory principle?

Chunking

Research on the role of the amygdala in memory has found that

The amygdala helps make sure we remember events that trigger strong emotional responses.

Hermann Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve shows that

We forget more rapidly as time passes.

When asked to think of a “desk,” many students think of the desks in their classroom rather than a large desk used by an executive. This illustrates that their school desks have formed their ________ of a desk.

Prototype

People are more concerned about a medical procedure when told it has a 10 percent death rate than they are when told it has a 90 percent survival rate. Which psychological concept explains this difference in concern?

Framing

Memory aids that involve the use of vivid imagery and clever ways of organizing material are called

Mnemonic Devices

In the words 'slightly,' 'happily,' and 'quickly,' the 'ly' ending is a(n)

Morpheme

Your ability to immediately recognize the voice over the phone as your mother's illustrates the value of

Acoustic Encoding

Upon seeing the tear in my new pants, I shed a tear. The fact that you can recognize two different meanings for the word 'tear' in the preceding sentence demonstrates the importance of

Semantics

The inability to remember how Lincoln's head appears on a penny is most likely due to a failure in

Encoding

The value of generating positive first impressions in your initial interactions with a new employer in order to create a lasting positive impression is best underscored by the research on

Belief Perseverance

The finding that people who sleep after learning a list of nonsense syllables forget less than people who stay awake provides evidence that forgetting may involve

Interference

Visually associating five items needed from the grocery store with mental images of a bun, a shoe, a tree, a door, and a hive best illustrates the use of

Peg-word system

Dr. Bright's patient was complaining of feeling worthless, lethargic, and uninterested in typically enjoyable activities. Dr. Bright's potential misdiagnosis is likely due to which of the following?

Representative