perspectives in aging midterm

what did Rowe and Kahn (1998) discuss in the concepts of successful aging 

optimal aging, pathological aging, usual aging 

optimal aging

minimal loss of physical function and a healthy, vigorous body

pathological aging

accopanied by multiple chronic diseases and negative environmental influences

usual aging

typical or average experience, somewhere between pathological and optimal

psychological aging 

changes in personality, mental function, sense of self during adult years 

long studied area - physiology of cognitive impairments and connection to changes in sensory functions

ageism

“systematic stereotyping of and discrimination against people because they are old (butler 1989)

yes

is ageism a form of bigotry 

compassionate ageism

Binstock 1991

views of older people as lonely, frail, poor, deserving of help

exists alongside other stereotypical views

older people are cute, wise, funny, greedy, selfish, well off financially

societal aging

demographic, structural, and cultural transformation that a society undergoes as the proportion of older adults increases

born between 1946-1964

who is considered a baby boomer

life span development, human agency, historical time and place, timing, linked lives

what are the 5 guiding principles of the life course perspectives (elder et al., 2015)

life span development

human development is a lifelong process

human agency

decision and actions are constrained by circumstances

historical time and place 

understood within historical time

timing

the experience and consequences of a life event or transition depend on when they occur

linked lives

relationships

chronological age 

the time (in years) since birth 

useful for policies / opportunities

not all 20+ year olds are equally mature

a modern “proxy” for more complex ideas

importance of chronological aging

functional aging

determined by physical health and functioning

reflects need for aid

70 year olds vary functionally

importance of functional age

life phase

socially recognized periods, involving particular social roles

generation 

designate a level in an extended family structure or social group with unique ideas, values, emotions, and behaviors

thought to ahve with own Zeitgetist (spirit of their times)

cohort

groups of people in the population, born at about at the same historical time, whose lives share a slice of history as they are born and grow up, get older, and die

• starts something at the same point in time (birth, grad school, marriage)

• not always people of identical ages

mannheim’s generations

combination of state of mind and age grouping

life course as a concept

succession of age-sex categories arranged in a hierarchy of social influence

mill’s sociological imagination

personal troubles cannot be solved merely as troubles but must be understood in terms of public issues - social security as a result of the great depression

heterogeneity 

the extent to which older individuals are different from each other (individuality) 

diversity

refers to the patterns of difference across groups of people in different social locations (age, gender, race, ethnicity, social class)

gerontology as a field

arena for research and practice

sociology of aging focuses on the sociological view

social gerontology is fundamentally interdisciplinary

identify and clarify research questions

organizes / reveals patterns within or across studies

provides an avenue for change / action

role of theory

periods effects

based on historical, political, and/or social change

driven by: events, trends, policies, groups 

longitudinal / panel studies 

• following individuals and their changes through time 

• contrasted with cross sectional studies (data collected at one point, snapshots of difference between birth cohorts) 

• cohort sequential design is very useful

secondary analysis

• using large preexisting datasets to observe age - related changes 

qualitative

naturalistic inquiry that seeks in depth understanding of social phenomena within their natural setting. uses in depth interviewing, life histories, observation 

quantitative

examine numerical data using statistical techniques (no subjective interpretations)

life history and reminiscence

controversial research tool, interpretive process (retrospection)

event history and analysis

when and how particular events happen to the subject

fallacy of cohort centrism

erroneous assumption that future (or past) cohort will age the same way as current cohorts under study, Riley (1987)

easterlin’s hypothesis (1987)

life chances are influences by the size of the cohort (generation) into which individuals are born, negative outcomes for large cohorts 

sociology of science

focused upon processes through which theories and knwoledge are generated within the context of the social world, raising questions of why we think the way we do and how we know what we think we know. knowledge itself is a social construction, product of dominant ideas and assumptions

more than 1.2 million people

how many people did Kunkel, Brown, and Whittington say would join the ranks of the older population per month (2014)?

fertility, mortality, migration 

which 3 demographic processes influence how populations age 

demographic transition theory

interrelated social / demographic changes result in population growth and aging, phases 1-3

phase 1

mortality decline

phase 2:

lag, fertility remains high

phase 3

fertility declines, population ages

no, mixed evidence

• pattern was observed as many western countries became industrialized

• likely not universal - other developing countries have followed different patterns

• process may differ for many reasons

was the demographic transition theory present in all populations

population pyramids

graphic representation of age / sex structure of a population

proportion aged

65+ years population / total population

median age

age where 50% of population is older / 50 % younger

dependency ratio 

the proportion of a population that falls within age categories traditionally thought to be economically dependent (young/old)

life expectancy

average number of years members of a population expect to live

at birth or varied ages

varies by sex/race/ethnicity/class, variations appear globally

prospective age

average number of years of life a person has left

4% live in nursing homes

majority live in communities

many live alone, especially women

variations (age, race / ethnicity, gender) in living with spouses, partners, other kin, friends

living arrangements of older population

who lives where matters 

states vary in number, proportion of older adults 

influenced by demographic processes described earlier 

post-retirement migrants often return to areas with kin later in life

geographic distribution of older population 

as age increases, the sex ratio becomes more female dominated

long standing difference in life expectancy favoring women mostly 

women dominate centenarians 

gender composition of older population

cohorts differ in race/ethnic composition

as they move into later life, overall composition shifts 

increasing diversity in next decades

increasing race/ethnic diversity in older population

centenarians

increasing number of those 100+

• demography is not destiny 

• economic / social disaster does not ensue from societal aging

use of demographic imperative 

human development

progressive and systematic changes across the life course in cognitive, emotional, interpersonal, personality, and self-concept processes

successful aging

influences social relations and other contexts that influence later life outcomes

positive physical, psychological, and social engagement

individuals choices leading to success are shaped by social factors

ages and stages

• all societies organizes selves and lives of members by age /stage of life

• learned as a part of culture

• some transitions are clear, others fuzzy

as a timetable

• life course stages set timelines for achieveing social roles, such as employment, parenthood, and retirement 

• we learn these expectations and notice if we or other are on time or off time 

• societies must mutually agree that these stages and timetables are relevant and meaningful

age norms

proscribe or prescribe behaviors (deter/encourage)

structural lag

mismatch between changing expectations about aging and the inertia of social institutions, laws, and organizations

developmental science theory

encourages examination of the individual’s tragectory through time and life, but places that life in social, temporal, and environmental contexts

contemporary family

modified extended family (Litwak 1960)

modified extended family 

support extends between somewhat independent households of kin 

fictive kinship

extending rights / benefits of kinship to those technically not family

beanpole family

bengtson et cols (1995)

increase life expectancy makes family relationships more important over “long term lousy relationship)

family members as a social convoy 

a person’s inner network of close others who provide continuity in support over time 

Kahn and Antonucci (1980)

family estrangement

creating distance, eliminating contact, or losing affection for a parent, child, or sibling

• more than 90% marry at some point

• quality and longevity of marital relationship is vital to people’s well being

• who start their marriages happy generally stay happy for long periods

marital satisfaction occuring to benjamin karney and thomas bradybury (2020)

widowhood

• percentage widowed grows with advancing age

• stressful transition: socially, emotionally, economically

• broken heart syndrome (fagundes et al., 2018)

grandparenthood

• role is unclear 

• many women spend nearly half their lives as grandmothers 

• lineage bridge role played by the middle generation 

residential grandparents

• 7.2 million residential grandparents in 2018

• 2.5 million custodial grandparents / surrogate grandparent 

surrogate grandparents

opioid crisis, kinship care > foster homes, toll on grandparents, access to assistance 

• 70-80% unpaid care is by family caregivers

• CDC 2018:

  • 60% of total caregivers is women

  • 20% 65 or older

  • 37% for parent/in law

  • 10% for dementia

• more wives than husbands

who are caregivers

sandwich generation

caring for younger and older family members

caregiver burden

degree of strain reflecting lower life satisfaction, depression, decline in health

dementia = greater burdens

elder abuse

harmful action inflicted on the older person

elder neglect

failure to provide what is necessary for their care or well being (and in the most extreme case, abandonment), also causing harm

exploitation of older adults

• financial abuse

• “prevalent, predictable, costly, sometimes fatal” (dong 2015)

labor market 

the demand for employees, in terms of both numbers and skills, pace of change now is extremely rapid 

labor force

the supply of available employees with their particular skills and experiences. in shortage workers have an advantage

labor force participation rate

proportion of a population that is employed at a given time; indicates the prevalence of retirement or other non employed statuses. for older people it has been raising

1967 age discrimination in employment act

• workers 40-70 years

• denying jobs, promotions, training, or being fired

• difficult to prove in court 

• a few exceptions to the law

retirement in the industrial revolution

• employer pensions (retirement plans that were fully paid in installments from employers) seen as reward for merit and gift 

retirement post world war II

pension programs grew rapidly in strong economy

cover a wide range of occupations

labor was in ample supply, economy was strong

social security

• government supported program created in 1935

• promoted retirement as: 

  • retirement socially legimate as a transition and stage of the life cycle 

  • individuals could return, providing a reliable source of income to majority of american workers 

employer funded pensions / defined benefit plans

deferred compensation for working years

pensions build loyalty during earlier years and enables orderly departures at later career stages

early retirement incentive programs

incentives added to make pensions more attractice and encourage voluntary retirement

used to reduce workforce fast

used in difficult economic times (easier to fund pension benefits than pay salaries)

more humane, better for corporate image

targets more “expensive” workers

defined contribution pensions

last few decades

pensions directed and funded by employees

investment in stocks and binds outside company’s control

phased retirement

reduce hours but keep the same hourly rate of pay, preferably in the same job

bridge jobs

jobs to carry them over between a career job and retirement

unretirement

workers manage to retire well before their NRA but then, most often out of necessity, must find employment after NRAs

productive aging

it fosters particular types of activities among older people, as well as volunteering in ways that are not only about personal enrichment and growth

as cultural idea, resonates with the busy ethnic described early

supplemental security income

based on financial need

provident funds 

compulsory savings programs, workers pool resources to meet a variety of needs, including, not limited to, retirement and disability 

three legged stool

three major income sources, having all three is considered financial security

many people only have one or two sources/elgs