The Science of Child Development – Foundational Theories, Themes, and Methods

40 question-and-answer flashcards covering foundational theories, research themes, and methodological issues in the science of child development.

What is a “theory” in developmental science?

An organized set of ideas designed to explain phenomena and make predictions.

Which five major theoretical perspectives are commonly cited in child-development research?

Biological, Learning, Cognitive-Developmental, Contextual, and Psychodynamic perspectives.

What is the central concept of the Biological Perspective on development?

Development is determined primarily by biological forces.

According to maturational theory, how does child development unfold?

It follows a specific, pre-arranged scheme or plan that is built into the body.

What is the chief criticism of maturational theory?

It pays little or no attention to the role of experience.

What does ethological theory emphasize in explaining development?

The development of adaptive behaviours that have survival value.

Define “critical period” as used in ethological theory.

A limited window of time during which a specific type of learning can occur easily; outside the window, learning is difficult or impossible.

What classic phenomenon did Konrad Lorenz demonstrate with ducklings?

Imprinting—ducklings form an emotional bond to the first moving object they see after hatching.

What is the core idea of the Learning Perspective?

Experience plays a crucial role in shaping development.

In classical conditioning, what eventually happens when a neutral stimulus (CS) is paired repeatedly with an unconditioned stimulus (US)?

The neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicits the same response (CR) as the US.

In the Little Albert experiment, what served as the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the conditioned response (CR)?

CS: A rabbit (or other neutral object); CR: Fear.

How does operant conditioning, according to B. F. Skinner, explain changes in behaviour?

Behaviour is shaped by its consequences; reinforcement increases behaviour, punishment decreases it.

Provide an example of positive reinforcement in everyday parenting.

Giving a child a cookie after they clean their room.

Provide an example of negative punishment.

Taking away television privileges because a child did not clean their room.

What key claim does Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory make about children’s learning?

Children learn by observing others and interpreting events based on their own perceptions.

According to Bandura, when are children MOST likely to imitate a behaviour?

When they see the model being rewarded or view the model as popular or high-status.

What is the core concept of the Cognitive-Developmental Perspective?

Development reflects children’s efforts to understand the world around them.

How did Piaget famously describe children in his theory?

As “little scientists” who actively create and revise theories about their world.

How many stages are in Piaget’s sequence of cognitive development?

Four distinct stages.

What does the Contextual Perspective assert about development?

Development is determined by multiple interacting environments, both immediate and distant.

What was Lev Vygotsky’s primary emphasis in child development?

The role of the social environment in transmitting cultural beliefs, customs, and skills.

Briefly state the focus of Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory.

Children develop within a set of nested systems (micro-, meso-, exo-, macro-, and chrono-systems) that interact over time.

Give an example of a microsystem in Bronfenbrenner’s framework.

Immediate settings such as family, school, or a childcare centre.

What does the chronosystem represent in ecological theory?

The dimension of time, capturing life-course changes in the child or environment.

What question does the continuity-discontinuity issue address?

Whether development is a smooth, continuous process or involves qualitative, stage-like shifts.

What does the nature-nurture issue seek to explain?

How heredity (nature) and environment (nurture) interact to shape development.

Explain the active-passive child issue.

Whether children are passive recipients of environmental influences or active contributors who shape their own development.

Why do developmental scientists say that progress in different domains is connected?

Changes in one domain (e.g., cognition) often influence and are influenced by changes in others (e.g., social development).

List the four major themes summarized in child-development research lectures.

1) Early development relates to later development, 2) Heredity and environment interact, 3) Children influence their own development, 4) Development in different domains is connected.

What is a self-report measure, and what is a common limitation?

Interviews or questionnaires; they can suffer from response bias and rely on children’s communication skills.

What is meant by “sampling behaviour with tasks,” and what is its main advantage?

Using structured tasks (e.g., memory games) to elicit behaviours; task performance is typically objective and easy to quantify.

Name one advantage and one limitation of physiological measures in child research.

Advantage: Objective data (e.g., heart rate, brain activity). Limitation: They are challenging to obtain and often provide narrow information.

What distinguishes naturalistic from structured observation?

Naturalistic observes behaviour in real-life settings; structured creates a controlled setting to elicit specific behaviours.

What does a correlational study examine?

The relationship between variables as they naturally occur, without manipulation.

Can a correlation establish causation? Why or why not?

No; correlations can reflect reverse causality or a third, unmeasured variable.

In an experiment, what is the independent variable?

The factor the researcher manipulates to test its effect.

In experimental research, what is the dependent variable?

The behaviour or outcome that is measured to see if it changes in response to the independent variable.

What characterizes a longitudinal study?

The same individuals are tested repeatedly over an extended period.

What major limitation does a cross-sectional study have compared with a longitudinal design?

It cannot track individual change over time because each person is tested only once.

What is a longitudinal-sequential study?

A hybrid design that follows multiple age cohorts over time, combining longitudinal and cross-sectional elements.

Why might findings from studies conducted decades ago not fully apply to today’s children?

Modern technology and societal changes may produce different developmental experiences, limiting direct applicability.