Psychology Units 3 and 4

Stress

A physiological and/or psychological state of tension that occurs when an individual is confronted with a situation that is challenging or threatens their ability to cope

Stressor

Any person, object or event that challenges a person, thus prompting a stress response

Distress

A form of stress characterised by a negative psychological state

Eustress

A form of stress characterised by a positive psychological state 

Acute stress

A form of stress characterised by intense but brief physiological and psychological symptoms

Fight-flight-freeze response

An involuntary and automatic response to a threat

Cortisol

A hormone that is released in times of stress to aid the body in initiating and maintaining heightened arousal

Negative effects of cortisol

• impaired cognition

• decreased bone density

• anxiety

• hypertension

• increased weight

• decreased muscle tissue

• weakened immune system

• suppressed thyroid function

• high blood sugar

• decreased metabolism

• chronic fatigue

• sleep disturbances

What happens during alarm reaction stage?

Initial decrease then subsequent increase of arousal in response to immediate stressor 

What happens during resistance stage?

High levels of bodily arousal are maintained in response to a persistent stressor

What happens in Exhaustion stage

Depletion of energy levels and bodily resources results in an inability to cope with the stressor

Synaptic plasticity

The ability of synaptic connections to change over time in response to activity or experience 

Sprouting

The ability of dendrites or axons to develop new axons or branches

Rerouting

The ability of a neuron that is connected to a damaged neuron to create an alternative synaptic connection

Pruning

The elimination of synaptic connections that are not adequately activated

Long-term potentiation

The long lasting and experience dependent strengthening of synaptic connections as a result of repeated high intensity stimulation

Long term depression

The long lasting and experience dependent weakening of synaptic connections as a result of repeated low intensity stimulation

Structural changed of long term potentiation

• increased number of receptor sites

• bushier dendrites due to sprouting

• increased number of synaptic connection

Structural changes of long term depression

• decreased number of receptor sites 

• decreased number of dendrites due to pruning

• decreased synaptic connections due to pruning

Neurotransmitters

Chemical substances that carry info between neurons

Neuromodulators

Increase or decrease the excitability/responsiveness of neurons to neurotransmitter signals

Dopamine

Regulates movement and reward motivated behaviour/learning

Serotonin

Responsible for regulating mood, appetite, memory, sleep and attention

Primary appraisal

Individual determines nature of stressor as benign-positive, irrelevant or stressful

Second stage of primary appraisal

If identified as stressful, further appraised as either harm/loss, threat or challenge

Secondary appraisal

Process of evaluating the resources required and available in order to cope with a stressor

Gut microbiota

Collection of microorganisms that live in the gut that assist in the digestion of food and help maintain gut health

Gut-brain axis

Bi-directional communication network between brain, spinal cors and parts of the gastrointestinal tract via the vagus nerve

Vagus nerve

Responsible for connecting cognitive and emotional regions of the brain to the intestinal tract via a collection of sensory and motor units

Context-specific effectiveness

When the coping strategy or mechanism used is appropriate for the unique demands of the stressor

Coping flexibility

An individual’s ability to adjust their coping strategy depending on the unique and changing demands of a stressor

Approach strategies

Directly confront the source of stress and thus reduce or eliminate it

Avoidance strategies

Evade the stressor, seeking to indirectly reduce stress

Learning

The process of acquiring knowledge, skills or behaviours through experience

Behaviourist approach

Theories that propose learning occurs through observable interactions between an individual and stimuli in their environment through conditioning

Social-cognitive approaches

Involve theories that propose learning takes place in a social setting and involves various cognitive processes

Story sharing

Learning through narrative

Learning maps

Explicitly mapping processes; picture pathways of knowledge

Non-verbal

Intra-personal and kinaesthetic skills to thinking and learning

Symbols and images

Using images and metaphors to understand concepts and contentL

Land-links

Space based learning, linking content to local land and place

Non-linear

Producing innovations and understanding by thinking laterally or combining systems

Deconstruct/reconstruct

Modelling and scaffolding, working from wholes to parts

Community links

Centring local viewpoints, applying learning for community benefits

Songlines

Sequence of short sung narratives associated with specific locations that are linked by a path through Country

Yarning

Conversation where people seek to deepen understanding

Dadirri

Closely observing relationships that exist to give people a profound knowledge of living system

Encoding

The process involves converting raw info from external stimuli into a useable form which is stored in the brain for further use

Storage

Converted information is retained in brain and accessed and used in the future

Retrieval

Accessing information which has been previously stored in long-term memory and bringing it to conscious awareness in short term memory

Sensory memory

A store of memory which very briefly stores raw info detected by senses

Iconic memory

Temporarily stores visual information for a brief amount of time (0.2-0.4 seconds)

Echoic memory

Store of all sounds (3-4s)

Short term memory

A store of memory that temporarily stores a limited amount of information (5-9 pieces of information for 18-30 seconds) that is consciously being attended to and actively manipulated

Ways to manipulate STM

Chunking: group long pieces of info into smaller chunks

Maintenance rehearsal: repeating new info over and over again to keep info in STM for as long as possible

Elaborative rehearsal: meaningfully linking new info to info already stored in LTM

Long term memory

A store of memory in which a potentially unlimited amount of info is stores for a relatively permanent amount of time

Serial position effect

Tendency for free recall to be superior for items at the end and beginning of a list compared to the middle items

Explicit memory

Consciously retrieved and can be stated to someone else. Divided into semantic and episodic memories

Semantic memory

General knowledge and facts

Episodic memory

Memories of personal experiences or autobiographical events

Implicit memory

Unconsciously and involuntarily retrieved. Divided into procedural and classically conditioned memories.

Procedural memory

Knowing how to carry out tasks

Classically conditioned memory

Involuntary response to a stimulus which has been repeatedly associated with an emotionally arousing stimulus

Hippocampus

Encodes explicit memories and interacts with amygdala when encoding explicit memories involving emotional responses. Also retrieves episodic memories and autobiographical events.

Amygdala

Encodes emotional component of classically conditioned and explicit memories

Neocortex

Stores explicit memories. Also retrieves semantic memories and autobiographical events.

Basal ganglia

Encodes and stores procedural and classically conditioned memories via connection with cerebellum

Cerebellum

Encodes and stores implicit procedural memories

Alzheimer’s disease

A neurodegenerative disease that is characterised by memory decline

Amyloid plaques

Fragments of beta-amyloid protein accumulate around neurons into insoluble plaques that inhibit communication between neurons

Neurofibrillary tangles

An accumulation of tau protein that forms insoluble tangles within neurons, which then inhibit the transportation of essential substances and eventually kill the neuron entirely

Progression of Alzheimer’s

1. Hippocampus: disrupts encoding and retrieval of semantic and episodic memory

2. Neocortex: stores memories lost and cognitive deficits occur

3. Cerebellum: decline in cognitive performance and accuracy, speed and consistency of info processing

Aphantasia

Absence of voluntary visual imagery

Mental imagery

Refers to the perception-like experience in our conscious thought in the absence of external sensory stimuli

Mnemonics

Devices or techniques used to aid the encoding, storage and retrieval of information

Acronyms

Mnemonic device in which the first letters of items form a pronounceable word to aid memory

Concsciousness

Level of awareness an individual has over their thoughts, feelings, perceptions and existence

Normal waking consciousness

A state of consciousness in which an individual is awake and aware

Altered state of consciousness

Distinctly different form NWC in terms of quality of experience and levels of awareness

Sleep

A regular and naturally occurring altered state of consciousness that involves a loss of awareness and disengagement with external and internal stimuli

NREM-1

Light sleep, 2-10 minutes

NREM -2 

Truly asleep, relatively light, 20-30 minutes

NREM-3

Deep sleep, 20-40 minutes

EEG

Detects, amplifies and records electrical activity if brain

EMG

Detects, amplifies and records the electrical activity if body’s muscles

EOG

Detects, amplifies and records electrical activity of muscles responsible for eye movement

Video monitoring

Use of a camera and audio technologies to record an individual as they sleep

Sleep diaries

Record containing self-reported descriptions from an individual about sleeping periods, judgements on quality and nature of sleep

Circadian rhythms

Biological and behavioural changes that occur as part of a cycle that lasts around 24 hours

Ultradian rhythms

Biological and behavioural changes that occur in a cycle that lasts <24 hours

Melatonin

A hormone released to induce sleep

Zeitgebers

Internal and external environmental cues that affect biological rhythm

Neonatal period (1-15 days)

16 hours’ sleep, 50% REM 50% NREM

Infancy (3-24 months)

13.5 hours’ sleep, 35% REM, 65% NREM

Childhood (2-14 years)

11 hours’ sleep, 20% REM, 80% NREM

Adolescence (14-18 years)

9 hours’ sleep, 20% REM 80% NREM

Young adulthood (18-30 years)

7.75 hours’ sleep, 20% REM, 80% NREM

Middle adulthood (30-75 years)

7-8 hours’ sleep, 20% REM, 80% NREM

Old age (75+ years)

6 hours’ sleep, 20% REM, 80% NREM