18. Economic crisi, the rise of dictatorship: ITALY

The disappointment with Democracy

• in the wake of WWI everywhere in Europe masses had claimed and received greater say in politics

• the nearly continuous economic crisis that plagued the continent => flueled distrust in parliamentarism especially amongst the middle classes

The first dictator to take over power in Europe

• in 1922

• the Italian Benito Mussolini

• example that will be followed by many others

• Authoritarian government => the leader seemingly embodied the will of the people, offered to many a prospect out of the crisis

European Governments in 1938

Growing Distrust

• the global economic depression that ensued after the Wall Street Crash of Oct 1929 => dramatic consequences in Europe

  → economic insecurity entailed social unrest and undermined parliamentary rule

  → in answer to these challenges => everywhere populism was on the rise!

  → and trust in institutions faltered

  → people sought scapegoats: Jews, Socialists, Communists, ethnic minorities, big business etc

• this consequences were compounded (made) by jealousy in international politics and economics;

  → proved impossible to carry out the terms of the Versailles Treaty (especially the illusion of the reparation payments)

  → and various European states could hardly pay back the loans they had contracted

What were the economic conditions between 1924 and 1929 and what triggered the downturn?

• the years 1924- 1929 => economic growth in Europe, but full recovery from WWI was not achieved

• demand (especially in the arms procustion) had fallen → investors had lended great sums to German, French and British governments and banks

• in 1929 => American economy had entered into a recession

• in the fall of the Wall Street Crash → investors had suddenly reclaimed outstanding debts

• all European economies suffered from the crisis and there were no easy answers to it

• As a consequence of the German hyperinflation of 1923-23 → European governments were reluctant to stimulate consumption

  → they tried as long as possible to maintain the gold standard, attempted deflationary politics and erected tariff barriers

=> if anything these answers only worsened the crisis

→ economic crisis

• as exports shrink → investors tried to convert money for gold → one government after the other => had devaluated its currency

• The French government was last to give in → from 1932 onward the depression hit also France,

  → whereas Britain slowly started to recover from that year onward, thanks to growing consumption

• J.M. Keynes had proven to be right advocating deficit spending

• from 1933 onward, when the Nazis had taken power in Germany → the economy started to grow once again → at least partly as a consequence of re-arment and massive spending in public infrastructure

• from all Western countries, the US was hit most severely by the repression → and it would take until 1941 when the US entered WWII to fully recover

The Rise of the Fascist Dictatorship

• economic uncertainty and inflation particularly hit the middle classes, as their savings were eaten up

• the ‘red scar’ drove those middle classes in the arms of dictators who promised to protect them and to embody popular will: trust in the Great MAN/ Duce/ Fuhrer/ Caudillo

• both right and left wing extremists deliberately tried to destabilise parliamentary institutions (which they thought to be weak by nature) →by creating havoc (chaos, confusion etc)

What were all right wing movements characterised by:

• outspoken nationalism

• led to a contempt of outsider: anti-semism

  → differences between various movements:

  • Iberian Peninsula maintaining existing order

  • Central and Eastern Europe = protection of agrarian interests

  • Austria: corporatism

  • Italy and Germany: ideologically more coherent and effort by the state to take over all aspects of public life

The Italian Case

• Fascism was

What were the main factors that led to the rise of fascism in Italy after World War I?

• after WWI, Italy faced serious economic hardship, including:

  → massive national debt and inflation

  → high unemployment, especially among returning soldiers

  → widespread strikes and protests

  → social unrest

  => these conditions created fertile ground for extremist ideologies, many Italians felt betrayed by the liberal government, which seemed unable to manage the crisis

  => fascism emerged as a radical alternative => promising order, strength and national renewal

Why were Italians disappointed with the Verailles Peace Talks?

• Italy entered the WWI on the Allies side with the promise of territorial gain

  → however, Italy received fewer territorial gains than promised, leading to a sense of betrayal known as the ‘Multilated Victory’ → Italians felt cheated by the Allies

• The failure to annex Fiume (Rijeka) contributed to the national frustration

What was the Fiume (Rijeka) Crisis and why was it significant?

• in 1919, nationalist poet and war hero Gabriele D’Annuzio seized Fiume with armed supporters (in a rogue military adventure)

• the Italian government eventually forced him out, but the episode fueled nationalist resentment and undermined confidence in luberal democracy - paving the way for fascist propaganda

  => though short-lived → it undermined the liberal government and inspired fascist nationalism

The Biennio Ross (1919-1920)

The ‘Two Red Years’ = period of intense social unrest and left- wing activism in Italy

• Widespread strikes, factory occupation, and land seizures

• A surge in socialist and communist movements, inspired by the 1917 Russian Revolution

• Many Italians, especially the middle and upper classes, feared a Bolshevik- style revolution

=> it led many to support fascists who opposed leftist movements

Benito Mussolini (1883-1945) and how he portrayed himself?

Mussolini = originally a socialist; broke with the left and founded the Fascist movement in 1919. He portrayed himself as:

• a strong, charismatic leader who could restore Italian greatness

• a man of action in contrasts to the perceived weakness of parliamentary democracy

• the voice of the people, uniting workers, veterans and nationalists under a single authoritarian vision

=> his image was carefully crafted through propaganda to suggest he embodied the will of the nation - a key theme in fascist ideology

How did Mussolini portray himself to the Italian public?

• as the embodiment of the iTALIAN PEOPLE’S will - strong, decisive leader capable of restoring order, national pride and defeating nationalism

March on Rome

• OCT 1922

• carefully staged demonstration by the fascist to show their strength

• around 30 000 blackshirts coveried rome

• Rather than resist, King Victor Emmanuel III invited Mussolini to form a government, fearing civil war

What was the March of Rome and why is it important?

• in oct 1922, Mussolini’s Blacksirts marched on Rome. Instead of resisting, King Victor Emmanuel III invited Mussolini to form a government => marking the beginning of fascist rule

When did Mussolini become Prime Minister of Italy?

• 29 Oct 1922, following the March of Rome and the king’s decision to avoid conflict by appointing Mussolini

What was Mussolini’s attempt?

• attempt to create a totalitarian state → state that held a complete grip/ control on society = censorship, sending dissidents to the confino, curtailing room for women in the public space

• ultimate failure of economic policy

3 phases of fascism

→ Fascism remained in power for slightly more than two decades; called ventennio; 3 distinguished phases

• 1922- 1929: acquisition of power (March on Rome, assassination of Giacomo Matteotti in 1924)

• 1929- 1936: years of consolidation and consensus (signing of the Lateran Treaty; the conquest of Ethiopia and the proclamation of Victor Emmanuel III as emperor in May 1936 as a turning point)

• 1936- 1943: Slow decline of the regime, loss of consensus and eventual collapse (1938: Racial Laws, 1940: Entry into WWII)

Assassination of Giacomo Matteotti (June 1924)

• Matteotti = a socialist MP, denounced fascist election fraud and violence in Parliament

• kidnapped and murdered by fascist agents, causing national outrage

• the Matteotti Crisis nearly toppled Mussolini, but he held on to power

• in january 1925 => Mussolini declared himself as dictator => solidifying the fascist regime

The Lateran Treaty 1929

• stage 2

• feb 1929

• signed between Mussolini and the Vatican (Pope Pius XI) => independent Vatican City State

• catholicism recognised as the state religion => in return, the Church endorsed/approved the regime

• gained Mussolini significant popular support among Catholics

Invasion of Ethiopia (1935-36)

• Mussolini aimed to expand Italy’s empire and distract from domestic issues

• Italy invaded and used brutal tactics, including chemical weapons

• Ethiopia was annexed and declared part of the Italian East African empire

→ King Victor Emanuel III = named ‘Emperor of Ethiopia’

• seen as the high point of Mussolini regime = boosting nationalist pride

• led to international condemnation and League of Nations sanctions

Decline and Collapse of the Regime (1936-43)

1936-43

→ Allience with Nazi Germany (Rome-Berlin Axis, 1936)

• Mussolini moved closer to Hitler = creating idealogical and military ties

• led to increased militarisation and racial policies modelled after Nazi Germany

→ Racial Laws (1938)

→ entry into WWII (june 1940)

→ Collapse (July 1943)

Racial Laws (1938)

• Anti- Semitic Laws passed → barring Jews form education, employment and property

• marked break with traditional Italian tolerance and alienated many supporters

• deeply unpopular and moral turning point of the regime’s decline

Entry into WWII (June 1940)

→ Italy entered WWII on the side of Nazi Germany, expecting quick vistories

→ Instead => Italy suffered repeated military defeats (Greece, North Africa)

→ economic stain, bombings and rising casualties eroded public and elite support

Collapse (July 1945)

• Allied invasion of Sicily (July 1943) exposed military weakness

• Mussolini was dismissed by the king and arrested on 25 July 1943

• Italy began negotiations with the Allies while German forces occupied northern Italy

How did early Italian fascism associated itself with modernity and avant-garde culture?

• early fascism embraced modernist and futurist ideals, including speed, technology, violence and youth

• it was influenced by the Futurist movement => celebrating industrial progress and the destruction of old traditions

• attract artists, intellectuals and young radicals in its early phase

Futurism and what role it play in shaping early fascist aesthetics and values?

→ futurism = an avant-garde movement

• glorified war, machines, youth and revolution => themes Mussolini intially co-opted to portray fascism as forward- looking and energetic

=> the fascist regime used futurist- inspired aesthetics in propaganda, architecture and rallies to project power and dynamism

The movement from modernist and futurist influence to traditionalism?

• while early fascism = modernity; soon shifted to traditionalism to gain broader societal support

  → promoting patriarchal family values

  → emphasising Catholic morality

  → appealing to conservative Italians through a return to Classical Roman imagery

How did Mussolini use Classical Antiquity to legitimise fascist rule?

• Mussolini portrayed himself as Modern- day Augustus, reviving the Roman Empire

• fascist art, architecture and rhetoric glorified ancient Rome

• Public buildings featured neoclassical designs, and the conquest of Ethiopia was symbolically framed as a return to imperial greatness.

What was the significance of traditonal family values in fascist ideology?

• the family as the foundation of the fascist state

  • encouraged high birth rates through incentives and propaganda

  • opposed women’s employment => reinforced domestic roles

  • education emphasised obedience, nationalism and gender roles

How did fascism become more rigid and authoritarian in the 1930s

• strict hierarchies in both party and state

• an extreme cult of personality around Mussolini (II Duce)

• indoctrination through fascist youth groups (like the Balilla) and controlled media

• loyalty to the regime was prioritised over critical thought or innovation

What was the impact of fascist rigidity and leadership cult on society?

• the rigidity of fascist rule stifled/ repress independent thought, cultural diversity and political opposition.

• the glorification of Mussolini and the centralsied state fodtered conformity and suppressed dissent

• the lack of flexibility contributed to the regime’s stagnation and eventual collapse

An Assessment of the Fascist Regime

• after initial success, the fascist experiment got bogged down in its own contradictions

• the grip of the fascist state on the population was never complete

  → in particular the Catholic Church despite initial sympathy for Mussolini did not allow itself to fit into the structures of the regime

• the successive decisions to strive for dominance in the Mediterranean , to build colonial empire and to join the Axis powers during WWII → would have disastrous consequences