Common Ethical Theories and Ethics

Ethics

The discipline concerned with what is morally good and bad and morally right and wrong.

Moral Philosophy

Another term for ethics, focused on moral values and principles.

Relativism

The theory that there is no universal moral norm of right and wrong. According to this theory different individuals or groups of people can have completely opposite views or  moral problem, and both can be right. It suggests that different environment spawn different ethics.

1. Subjective

2. Cultural

Two types of Relativism

Subjective Relativism

The belief that each person decides right and wrong for themselves. This notion is captured in the popular expression “What’s right for you may not right for me.” e.g. Reproductive Health Bill

Subjective Relativism

• Well-meaning and intelligent people disagree on moral issues (e.g. taxation and wealth disparity)

• Ethical debates are disagreeable and often leads nowhere.

• People are good at rationalizing bad behavior.

• No moral distinction between actions.

Cultural Relativism

The theory that the meaning of right and wrong rests with society’s actual moral guidelines. These guidelines vary widely from place to place and from time to time.  Particular action may be wrong in a society at one time and wrong in another society or in another time. e.g. Capital punishment

Cultural Relativism

• It doesn't explain how moral guidelines are determined.

• Cultural norms may not be accepted across the board.

• It provides no way out for cultures in conflict.

• Existence of many acceptable practices does not imply all practices are acceptable.

• Just because two societies do have different moral views , doesn't mean they ought to have different views.

Divine Command Theory

The idea that good actions are aligned with the will of God, based on obedience, not reason. The instruction is right because it is commanded by God, period. We cannot question the sovereignty of God.

Divine Command Theory

• Base on obedience not reason.

• Society is multicultural and secular.

• Different Holy books disagree.

• Some moral problems are not addressed in the scriptures

Consequentialism

“The end will justify the means.” The ethical theory that the consequences of an action determine its moral acceptability of the means taken to reach that end. It is the consequence of an action which determines whether or not the action is moral. The results of the action prevail over any other consideration. It holds that evaluating results, is more important than evaluating the actions. Thus rightness or wrongness of actions is definable in terms of the goodness or badness of the result.

Ethical Egoism

The belief that each person should focus on their own self-interest as the morally right action. In other words, the morally right action for a person to take in a particular situation is the action that will provide that person with the maximum long-term benefit.

Utilitarianism

The philosophy that the right action produces the most intrinsic good for everyone affected. It believes in "the greatest happiness for the greatest number". Utility equates to happiness, which depending on the context may mean an advantage, a benefit, good, pleasure or profit.

Greatest Happiness Principle

The principle in utilitarianism that advocates for the greatest good for the greatest number.

Utilitarianism

• Could result in harming some for the sake of the majority.

• Adding up consequences requires that we calculate them all in the same units of measurement.

• Ignores innate sense of duty.

Kantianism or Deontology

This theory emphasizes the type of action rather than the consequences of that action. Deontologists believe that moral decisions should be made based on one’s duties and the rights of others. According to Kant, morality is based on pure reason. As people have the innate ability to act rationally, they, therefore, must act morally, irrespective of personal desires. Another way of stating Kant’s theory is “Act morally regardless of the consequences.”

Kantianism or Deontology

• Sometimes no rule adequately characterizes an action.

• There is no way to resolve a conflict between rules.

• Allows no exceptions to moral laws.

Ethics

• Are the cornerstone of civilization

• Are the basis for the rules we all voluntarily choose to follow because that makes the world a better place for all of us

1. Religion

2. Laws

Ethics are not __________, and __________

Ethics are not Religion

• Religions teach us to behave in good ways. There are precepts like, Thou Shalt Not Steal.

• Most religions promote ethical behavior, but ethics aren't necessarily religious.

• Ethics are shared values and religions are often shared values too.

• Ethics could flow on account of religious beliefs, but they needn't. Ethics also are not laws.

Ethics are not Laws

• Ethics guide the creation of laws, so the two are often in consonance.

• Ethics are not laws. Laws often follow ethics because ethics are a shared social values. Laws are often created to enforce these shared social values.

• Laws are used to help enforce ethical behavior. Other social covenants can do so as well, such as people being ostracized.

No

You know this kid from a very poor family who is taking a class with you. You know how hard his family struggled to be able to send him to this class. You see him really struggling with the exam, and you know that he cannot afford to fail this class. Driven completely by kindness, and with no expectation of any pay back, you let him copy answers from your exam book. Is your action ethical?

• Yes

• No

Yes

Your elderly neighbor suddenly collapses one day, so you put her in your car and rush her to the hospital. There is a traffic jam near the hospital, but no traffic in the opposite direction, so you drive on the wrong side of the road for the last couple of blocks. Is your action ethical?

• Yes

• No

No

A police officer sees you driving on the wrong side of the road and gives you a ticket even though you explain your emergency. Is the police officer wrong to issue the ticket?

• Yes

• No

Yes

You are in the plaza and you see a person drop a $100 bill by mistake. You quickly catch the bill before it flies away. You are tempted to put it in your pocket, but you see a police officer looking at you so you decide to return the money to the person who dropped it. Is your action ethical?

• Yes

• No

Illegal but ethical

You go to the beach and there are prominent signs asking you not to litter and informing you that there can be heavy fines if you are caught littering. However, you find that the beach has garbage strewn everywhere. You decide to leave your empty soda can on the beach rather than bother to carry it back home. Using the definition of ethics in this course, based on social consensus, is your action:

• Legal and ethical

• Legal but unethical

• Illegal but ethical

• Illegal and unethical

Illegal and unethical

You go to the beach and there are prominent signs asking you not to litter and informing you that there can be heavy fines if you are caught littering. You find one empty soda can someone left on the beach and this gets you very upset. You decide to leave your own empty soda can on the beach also. Is your action:

• Legal and ethical

• Legal but unethical

• Illegal but ethical

• Illegal and unethical

Legal but unethical

You go to the bus stop and everyone is patiently in line waiting for the bus. Rather than wait in line, you just jump on to the bus when it arrives. Your action is:

• Legal and ethical

• Legal but unethical

• Illegal but ethical

• Illegal and unethical

Yes

Lawrence Canter and Martha Siegel invented Spam as a new way to get unsolicited advertising messages to potential customers. Was their invention ethical?

• Yes

• No

No

Is it ethical to send Spam mail today?

• Yes

• No

No

I run a small business, and keep all my business records on an unprotected personal computer. These records include substantial information about my customers. Since I am a small business, I believe I am not a likely target for hackers. Indeed, several years have gone by and no one has stolen any information from my unprotected computer, as far as I know. Are my actions ethical?

• Yes

• No