exam 2 study guide - psychopathology

These flashcards cover key concepts related to anxiety disorders, bipolar disorders, their diagnostic criteria, treatments, and related psychological principles.

Anxiety Disorders

A group of mental health disorders characterized by excessive fear or anxiety.

Ex. Panic disorder, agoraphobia specific phobia, social anxiety disorder, separation anxiety disorder, selective mutism, generalized anxiety disorder

common criteria to agoraphobia specific phobia in social anxiety disorder

Criteria:

• The object or situation almost always provoke, fear, or anxiety

• The object or situation is actively avoided or it’s endured with intense fear, anxiety

• The fearing only is out of proportion to the actual danger, post by the objective situation and the context

• The fear, anxiety avoidance is persistent in last six months or more

• Causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social occupational or other areas of functioning

Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)

A type of anxiety disorder characterized by excessive, uncontrollable worry about various aspects of life.

Criteria;

• Three or more of the following for more days than not for at least six months

• Restlessness are feeling heat up or on edge

• Being easily fatigued

• Difficulty concentrating or mind going blank

• Irritability

• Muscle tension

• Insomnia or restless, unsatisfying sleep

• Causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social occupational or other areas of functioning

Panic Disorder

An anxiety disorder marked by recurrent and unexpected panic attacks.

Criteria:

• A significant maladaptive change of behavior related to the attacks, for example, of avoiding driving or avoid avoiding going to restaurants

• This panic attacks cannot occur only in the context of some other disorder

Agoraphobia

An anxiety disorder involving intense fear or anxiety about being in situations where escape might be difficult.

Criteria:

• March fearing’s idea about two or more of the following:

• Using public transportation

• Being an open space

• Being an enclosed space

• Standing in a line or being in a crowd

• Being outside of the home alone

Specific Phobia

An irrational fear of a specific object or situation that leads to avoidance behavior.

Ex. Flying height, close spaces, animals receiving an injection, seeing blood, etc..

Social Anxiety Disorder

An intense fear of social situations where one may be scrutinized by others.

Criteria:

• The person fears that they will act in a way or showing ID symptoms that will be negatively evaluated

• Marked by a fear or anxiety about one or more social situations in which the individual is exposed to possible scrutiny by others

Separation Anxiety Disorder

A disorder characterized by excessive fear or anxiety concerning separation from home or a major attachment figure.

Criteria:

• distress at separation from home or MAF

• Worry about losing you MAF

• Worry about event, causing separation from MAF

• Refused to go out because of the fear of separation

• Refuses to sleep away or sleep without MAF

• Fear about being away from MAF

• Nightmares about separation

• Physical complaint when separated from MAF

• Fear, anxiety, or avoid avoidance, less at least four weeks in children in adolescence and at least six months in adults

• Causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social occupational or other areas of functioning

Selective Mutism

A complex anxiety disorder characterized by a consistent failure to speak in specific social situations.

Criteria;

• consistent lack of speaking in specific social situations in which there is an expectation for speaking example school, despite speaking in other situations

• Is not attributable to a lack of knowledge or comfort with the spoken language required in the situation

• Interferes with educational or occupational achievement, or with social communication

• Last at least one month other than the first month of school

• Not explained by another communication disorder, for example stuttering

• Most likely caused by and causes anxiety

diagnostic criteria of manic episode

• Three or more four or more if mood is only irritable of the following

• Inflated self-esteem or grandiosity

• Decreased need for sleep

• Pressured speech or talking quickly

• Flight of ideas are racing thoughts or internal distractibility

• Distractibility or external

• Increase in goal, directed activity or psycho motor agitation

• Excessive involvement in risky behaviors

• Lasting at least one week

Conditioned Response

A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus resulting from classical conditioning.

Stimulus Generalization

The tendency for the conditioned response to be evoked by stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus.

hypomanic episode criteria

• Same as manic

• Just lasting at least four days

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

A type of psychotherapy that helps individuals challenge and change unhelpful cognitive distortions and behaviors.

Bipolar two

• Must have had at least ONE hypomanic episode and at least one major depressive episode

• MDD symptoms

• Has never had a manic episode

• The depression symptoms are switching between hypomanic and depression symptoms, cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social occupational other functioning

bipolar one

• Must have had at least one manic episode

• Lifetime prevalence of approximately one percent

• Women and men are equally likely to ever have a diagnosis of bipolar one

• First manic episode can happen at any point in life

• Most common to have first age of all set in the late teens aren’t early 20s

• It’s episodic and also chronic which means it lasted throughout a lifetime

• It involves major depressive episodes

how can bipolar disorders be distinguished from each other and how are they similar?

• hypomanic episodes don’t have to last as long, only four days compared to manic episodes

• Bipolar one includes at least one manic episode bipolar two never has a manic episode and neither has cyclothymia

• Cyclothymia is different from bipolar 2 because those were cyclothymia. Could never have a hypomanic episode where those with bipolar 2 can

Bipolar disorders

separated in the DSM into depressive disorders and bipolar and related disorders

• Manic episode not a disorder

• Hypomanic episode not a disorder

• Bipolar one

• Bipolar two

• Cyclothymic disorder

Cyclothymic Disorder

A mood disorder characterized by periods of hypomanic symptoms and periods of depressive symptoms.

Criteria:

• for at least two years

• Numerous periods of hypomanic symptoms that do not meet criteria for an episode

• Numerous periods of depressive symptoms that do not meet criteria for a major depressive episode

• Symptoms are present, at least half of the time and the person is never without the symptoms for more than two months

• Have never had a manic, hypo manic or other major depressive episode

• Symptoms must cause clinically, significant distress or impairment in social occupational or other functioning

Lithium Carbonate

• A mood stabilizer used primarily to treat bipolar disorder

• A chemical compound made from the Alkali metal lithium

• Unclear how it works

• Has severe side effects and hypo potential for toxicity

• It is useless than other medication’s and has no recognizable brand names

Anticonvulsants

• Medications initially used to treat seizures, now often used as mood stabilizers in bipolar disorder.

• May at least partially work by blocking sodium channels in neurons*

• Helps prevent manic episodes

• Some have substantial side effects

• Valproate (Depakote), Lamotrigine (Lamictal), Carbamazepine (Tegretol)

Reactive Attachment Disorder

A childhood disorder resulting from insufficient care and resulting in emotionally withdrawn behavior.

• social neglect, or deprivations not having the basic emotional needs for comfort and affection

• Changes in primary care caregivers that limits opportunities to form stable attachments

• Being raised in unusual studies that severely limit opportunities to form attachments

Results in inhibited, emotionally withdrawn behavior toward adult caregivers:

• Child rarely or minimally seeks comfort

• Child rarely are minimally responds to comfort

Child has at least two of these:

• Minimal social and emotional responsiveness

• Limited positive affect

• Episodes of unexplained, irritability, sadness, or fearfulness

Disinhibited social engagement disorder

A child experienced a pattern of extreme sufficient care at least one of these:

• Social neglect or deprivation, not having basic emotional needs for comfort and affection

• Changes in primary caregivers at limits opportunities to form staple attachments

• Being raised in unusual settings that severely limited opportunities to form attachments

Results in a pattern of behavior of approaching or interacting with unfamiliar adults at least two of these:

• Reduce her absent hesitation in approaching an interacting with unfamiliar adults

• Overly familiar, verbal or physical behavior

• Diminished or absent checking back with caregiver after venturing away in unfamiliar settings

• Willingness to go off with unfamiliar adults with minimal or no hesitation

Reactive attachment disorder and social engagement disorder

• they are distinct childhood conditions caused by social neglect or deprivation with RAD involving inhibited, social emotional connection and DSED involving in discriminate, social behavior

• They are caused by the same things

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

A disorder that develops after exposure to a traumatic event, leading to flashbacks, avoidance, and hyper-arousal.

Traumatic events:

Would count:

• Sexual violence

• Experiencing repeated or extreme exposure to adversive detail details of traumatic events

• Learning that the traumatic event occurred to a close family member or friend

Wouldn’t count:

• Exposure to inversive events through electronic media

• If it is nonviolent or not an accident of a close family member or friend

Prevalence - anxutes disorders are common

Specific phobia: 10%

Social anxiety: 7%

Separation anxiety: 4% (in children)

Panic disorder / gad: 3%

Agoraphobia: 1.5%

Selective mutism: 1%

What is the hereditary ability like for anxiety disorders and how does it compare to MDD?

30% of differences in GAD expression may be caused by genetics/heritability

60% for a specific phobia

50% for MDD

How does classical conditioning contribute to anxiety disorder etiology?

Loud noise → startle, fear, crying (in children)

White rate + loud noise → fear, crying

Whate rat → fear, crying

How is operant conditioning especially negative reinforcement related to anxiety maintenance

A contributes to the maintenance of avoidance

Ex. “ I see dogs every day so if exposure works, why am I not getting better?”

• still currently actively avoiding dogs

How are aces involved in anxiety disorder etiology

They are associated with an increased risk for anxiety disorders

How is information processing biased in anxiety disorders?

People with anxiety are vigilant for threat relevant information. They tend to it, and they avoid attending to it. This helps maintaining anxiety.

How are biased belief related to anxiety disorder, ideology, and maintenance how is overestimation involved?

Over estimation of the likelihood of a negative event happening

Overestimation of how bad a negative event will be if it does happen

Medications used to treat chronic anxiety

Trycyclic medications

SSRI

SNRI

NDRI

SARI

SMS

Antihistamines

Benzodiazepines

Medication’s used to treat acute anxiety

Benzodiazepines and beta blockers

Tricyclics

• name because of their three rings molecular structure

• Blocked the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine

• More side effects than SSRI and other medication’s

• They are not used much in modern treatment

• Ex: Imipramine (Tofranil) and Clomipramine (Anafranil)

SNRI

Use less often in treatment of anxiety

SSRI

Maybe more effective in treating anxiety than treating depression

Buspirone (Buspar)

And anxiety medication in a serotonin partial agonist

Antihistamines

• Histamine is a neurotransmitter

• Hydroxyzine (Vistaril) is an histamine inverse agonist

Benzodiazepines

• increases the effects of GABA receptors (also affected by alcohol)

• They are an effective treatment in acute and perhaps chronic anxiety

• They are in intended for short-term use

• They can lead to dependence and with

• Diazepam (Valium), alprazolam (Xanax), lorazepam (Ativan), clonazepam (Klonopin)

Beta blockers

• Initially intended to treat cardiac arrhythmia

• Beta adrenergic (epinephrine) receptor agonist

• Primarily inhibits the physiological effects of anxiety

• Propranolol (Inderal)

What is exposure therapy and effective treatment for?

Panic disorder, specific phobia, social anxiety disorder, separation anxiety disorder, and select selective mutism

Keys to successful exposure therapy

• Hierarchal or graduated exposures

• Staying in the situation long enough for the fear to go down

• Repetition

• Appliance exposed to multiple objects situations in settings

• It is humane

How do genes contribute to the etiology of bipolar disorders

• 60 to 85% of differences in bipolar expression may be caused by genetics and heritability

• No specific jeans have been identified

• Genes likely contribute to underlying processes like the circadian rhythm disruption rather than directly

The amygdala and prefrontal cortex- bipolar etiology

• Amygdala is associated with negative emotion generation

• Prefrontal cortex is important for emotion regulation

• People with bipolar often show an overactive amygdala and underactive prefrontal cortex

Putamen

Related to bipolar etiology

• important for reinforcement learning

• Decreased activity in people with bipolar disorder, compared to MDD and healthy controls

• Unclear exactly how this is relevant to bipolar, but perhaps reward and motivation and manic states

Behavioral factors - BIPOLAR

• disturbances and sleep in circadian rhythm staying up very late shifts and sleep week cycles may trigger manic episodes

Social factors - BIPOLAR

• Expressed emotion

• Family members, expressing critical comments and being emotionally over involved

• Leads to stress that may trigger manic or depressive episode episodes

Antipsychotics

• Medication’s primarily used to treat psychotic disorders, for example, schizophrenia

• Are used for bipolar as well, especially if there are psychotic, hallucinations or delusion symptoms present

• Mostly act as dopamine and serotonin, receptor antagonist

• Helps treat manic episodes and at lower doses, prevent manic and depressive episode episodes

Interpersonal and social rhythm therapy (ISPRT)

• helping the client work through interpersonal problems

• Maintain daily routine routines, including taking medication and a healthy sleep schedule

• Helps prevent manic and depressive episode episodes

Family focused therapy

• improving communication among family members

• Promoting problem-solving skills

• Designed to reduce critical comments by family members and emotional over involvement

• Helps prevent me and can depressive episodes

Traumatic event

Exposure to actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violence

Examples of trauma related and stressor related disorders

• Post traumatic stress disorder or PTSD

• Acute stress disorder

• Adjustment disorder

• Prolonged grief disorder

• Reactive attachment disorder

• Disinhibited social engagement disorder

How are trauma in stressor related disorder similar and how can they be distinguished from each other?

• The disorder shared similar similarities and being stressed related reactions, but differ in cause onset, duration, and symptom presentation

• PTSD and acute stress disorder ASD stem from a traumatic event with ASD symptoms lasting three days to one month and potentially developing into PTSD which has symptoms presenting for at least a month

• Adjustment disorders are reactions to any identifiable stressor not just trauma that caused distressed within three months

• From the long grief disorder is distinct involving intense, abnormally, prolonged grief after a loss

• Reactive attachment disorder and disinhibited social engagement disorder are distinct childhood conditions caused by social neglect or deprivation with RAD involving inhibited social emotional connection in DSED involving indiscriminate social behavior

Acute stress disorder

• Has the same criteria as PTSD regarding experiencing witnessing or being exposed to a traumatic event but last between three days and a month

Prolonged grief disorder

• has symptoms that go beyond normative grief, for example, identity, disruption, and feeling like life is meaningless

• 12 months after the death of someone close, the person experiences, persistent grief with at least one of these:

• Intense, yearning or longing for the deceased

• Preoccupation with thought thoughts or memories of the deceased

• The duration and severity of the symptoms must succeed expected social, cultural, or religious norms

Definitions of traumatic event changes over time

• Originally it was conceptualized as something related to war and combat

• Later expanded to include witnessing or experiencing other kinds of threatened to actual death

• DSM four include included threat to physical integrity

• DSM five included sexual violence, experiencing repeated or extreme exposure to adversity details of traumatic events, learning that the traumatic event occurred to a close family member or friend

Five criteria of PTSD

• symptoms apply to people older than six

1. Intrusion symptoms, at least one

2. Avoidance symptoms, at least one

3. Alterations in cognition and mood, at least two

4. Alterations in arousal reactivity, at least two

5. Other criteria:

   • must last more than one month

   • Symptoms caused clinically, significant distress or impairment in social occupational or other important areas of functioning

Intrusion symptoms of PTSD (at least one)

• Recurrent involuntarily and intrusive, distressing memories of the event

• Recurrent distressing dreams related to the event

• Flashbacks in which the person feels or act as if the event were reoccurring

• Intense psychological distress when exposed to internal or external cues related to the event

• Marked physiological reactions to internal external cues related to the event

Avoidance symptoms of PTSD (at least one)

• Avoidance of effort efforts to avoid distressing memories, thoughts, or feelings about the event

• Avoidance of our efforts to avoid external reminders, for example people, places, conversations, activities, objects, situations that bring up distressing memories, thoughts, or feelings about the event

Alterations in cognition in mood in PTSD (at least two)

• Inability to remember parts of the trauma

• Negative beliefs about the self world or others self blame about the event

• Negative emotional state

• Diminished interest or participation

• Feelings of detachment or a arrangement

• Inability to experience positive emotions

Alterations in arousal and reactivity in PTSD (at least two)

• irritable behavior and angry outburst

• Reckless or self-destructive behavior

• Hypervigilance a.k.a. being hyper aware

• Exaggerated startle response

• Problems with concentration

• Insomnia or restless asleep

How common is PTSD?

• approximately 5% lifetime prevalence in general population

• Approximately 10% in military veterans

• 80% to 95% of people who experienced trauma do not want to develop PTSD

• Women are 2x as likely to be diagnosed with PTSD

When does PTSD typically develop?

• can happen at any point in life after a traumatic event

• Highest rate rates in ages 15 to 24

• Approximately 33% of people with PTSD will improve without treatment

How do genetics contribute to the etiology of PTSD?

• 30% of 40% of differences in PTSD expression may be caused by genetics or heritability

• Gene slightly contribute to underlying processes

What is the heritability like for PTSD and how does it compare to MDD in anxiety disorders?

• less than other disorders like MDD and anxiety disorders

How are neurotransmitters involved in PTSD?

• Amygdala is associated with negative emotion generation and is often overactive in people with PTSD

• The prefrontal cortex is important for decision-making, an emotion regulation, and is often underactive in people with PTSD

• The hippocampus is associated with making and storing memories and as often underactive in PTSD

• This is a sign of impaired emotion regulation and dysregulated memory functioning in PTSD

How is avoidance related to PTSD maintenance?

• Avoidance maintains PTSD by creating a short term relief cycle that prevents long-term learning

• More likely to keep avoiding keep restricting themselves from distinction

How is information processing biased and PTSD and how might it contribute to maintenance?

• people with PTSD are vigilant for threat relevant information

• They tend to it and then avoid attending to it and may engage in behavioral avoidance as well

• For example, anxious, tend to potentially threatening stimuli, increasing anxiety, avoid situation, reducing anxiety, avoidance, more likely

How is overestimation involved in PTSD?

• over estimation of the likelihood of a negative event happening

• Over estimation of how bad a negative event will be if it does happen

How are beliefs about the self-willed in future related to PTSD etiology and maintenance?

• People who have beliefs like the world is safe and good things happen to good people before traumatic event are more likely to develop PTSD after a traumatic event

• Beliefs like I can never be safe or no one can be trusted may maintain PTSD

How is biased interpretation involved in PTSD maintenance?

• people with PTSD tend to interpret neutral or ambiguous information for example, a car driving fast as negative and threatening for example, they will crashed into us

How is operant conditioning especially negative reinforcement related to PTSD maintenance

• Avoidance of thoughts, memories, places, people, etc. keeps a person from experiencing extinction of the association

• Avoidance is negatively reinforced

• For example, thinking about driving, having anxiety, the avoidance of driving, reduction in anxiety, the negative reinforcement of avoidance

How was classical conditioning related to PTSD etiology?

• certain stimulate produce reflexive behaviors

• Exposure to actual threaten injury, death or sexual violence → fear

• Neutral stimulus paired with the stimulus that produces the reflexive behavior

• For example, driving certain cars certain people certain sound certain smell smells

• After repeated pairing, neutral stimulus will evoke the reflexive behavior

• Driving certain cars, etc. → fear

Medications used to treat PTSD

• tricyclic medications and SSRI, SNRI,NDRI,SARI, SMS are the same use for depression

• Benzodiazepines:

• Increases the effects of the GABA receptors *

• are intended for short-term use

• Should not be mixed with alcohol because they also affect the GABA system

• Can lead to dependency and withdrawal

• Ex. Diazepam (Valium), alprazolam (Xanax), lorazepam (Ativan), clonazepam (Klonopin)

Types of CBT used to treat PTSD

• Prolonged exposure (PE)

• Cognitive processing therapy (CPT)

Prolonged exposure

1. Breathing retraining

• helps reducing anxiety so that clients can complete exposures

1. Imaginal exposure

• Explicit to memories of the traumatic event

• Memories are currently associated with the fear of the trauma

• Imaginal exposure creates a new association between memories and no fear or danger

1. In vivo exposure

• Exposure to actually save people, places, situations, objects, etc., associated with the trauma

1. Cognitive restructuring

• How accurate is the thought I can trust no one

• Can we look at evidence and come up with a more balance or accurate thought?

Cognitive processing therapy

• Primarily cognitive therapy

• Writing about the impact of the trauma on the persons, beliefs, and emotions (impact statement)

• Helps identify beliefs, created by the trauma (“stuck points”)

• For example, I cannot protect myself or my loved ones or I can trust no one

• Learning about the relationship between events, beliefs, and emotions and behaviors

• For example, think about driving, I will get in a bad accident again, scared and avoid driving

• Come up with alternate beliefs

What are things that make PTSD different from anxiety disorders?

• PTSD is different from anxiety disorders because it is triggered specifically by a past traumatic event leading to symptoms like flashbacks and intrusive memories while anxiety disorders are more general persistent worry about future events

What are ways that PTSD is liking anxiety disorders?

• Both conditions share symptoms, such as fear, sleep disturbances, irritability, and hyperarousal or being on guard

What are obsessive compulsive disorders?

OCD was removed from anxiety disorders in place in its own category of disorders

• Obsessive compulsive disorder

• Hoarding disorder

• Body dysmorphia disorder

• Trichotillomania or hair pulling disorder

• Excoriation or skin picking disorder

OCD - obsessions

• Recurrent persistent thoughts, urges, or images that are experienced as intrusive and unwanted in that and most individuals caused marked anxiety or distress

• The individual attempt attempts to ignore or suppress these thoughts, urges or images, or to neutralize them with another thought or action (by performing a compulsion)

OCD - compulsions

• Repetitive behaviors like handwashing, checking or ordering or mental acts, like praying, counting, or repeated words silently that the individual feels driven to perform in response to an obsession

• The behaviors or mental acts are aimed at preventing anxiety distress, or some dreaded event or situation

• They are not realistically connected with what they are trying to prevent or are clearly excessive

How are OCD disorders similar and different?

They are similar in their use of obsessive thoughts and compulsive behaviors, but differ in the source, nature and awareness of the symptoms

What is the diagnostic criteria of obsessive comp

• Obsessions compulsions or both

• The obsessions are compulsions are time-consuming (take up more than an hour a day) or cause clinically, significant distress or impairment and social occupational or other areas of functioning

Hoarding disorder

• Persistent, difficulty, discarding, or parting with possessions, regardless of their actual value

• This is due to perceived need to save the items and the distress associated with discarding them

• It results in the accumulation of possessions that contest and clutter, active living areas and substantially compromises their intended use

• The hoarding causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social occupational or other areas of important functioning, including maintaining a safe environment for self for others

Body dysmorphia disorder

• preoccupation with one or more perceived effects or flaws and physical appearance that are not observable or appear slight to others

• The individual performs repetitive behaviors are mental action response to the appearance concerns

• The preoccupation causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social pre-occupational or other important areas of functioning

• The preoccupation is not better, explained by concerns with body fat or weight, which will be better explained by an eating disorder

• Or most people have some dissatisfaction with a part of their appearance, but do not have BDD

Trichotillomania

• Hair pulling disorder ( trich)

• recurrent pulling out of one’s hair, resulting in hair loss

• Repeated the attempts, decrease or stop pulling

• Causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social occupational or other areas of functioning

• It’s not better explained by a medical condition or BDD

• People do this because of “not just right” experiences and completion obsessions

excoriation disorder

• Skin picking disorder

• Recurrent skin picking resulting in skin lesions

• Repeated attempts to decrease or stop picking

• Causes clinically, significant distress or impairment and social occupational or other important areas of functioning

• It’s not better explained by a medical condition or BDD, self harm, etc.

• People do this because of “not just right” experiences, and completion obsessions

Types of compulsions

• checking: 68%

• Cleaning or washing: 60%

• Repeating: 56%

• Ordering or rearranging: 43%

• Counting: 26%

Types of obsessions

• Contamination: 58%

• Responsibility for harm: 56%

• Symmetry: 48%

• Aggressive: 45%

• Religious: 26%

• Somatic: 26%

• Sexual: 13%

How likely is it that someone can only have obsessions and no compulsions and get an OCD diagnosis

• Most evidence indicate that people with OCD have both obsessions and compulsions

• People who report having only obsessions often have subtle, mental compulsion

How common is OCD?

Approximately 2.5% lifetime prevalence

How is OCD comparing men and women?

Women slightly more likely than meant to be diagnosed with OCD, but this may be a reporting bias

When does OCD typically develop?

Typically begins an adolescence, but can begin in childhood or early adulthood, but it rarely begins after early adulthood

What is the typical course of OCD?

Typically chronic course without treatment with waxing and waning symptoms

How do genetics contribute to the etiology of OCD?

• There is a genetic/heritable component to OCD

• 45% to 65% of differences in OCD expression may be caused by genetics

What is the hereditability like for OCD and how does it compare to MDD anxiety disorders and PTSD?

It is higher in OCD then for NDD, anxiety disorders and PTSD

How are neurotransmitters involved in OCD?

• Many neurotransmitters, including serotonin and dopamine, GABA and glutamate are likely involved in OCD

• OCD is not caused by a simple deficiency or excessive neurotransmitters

What brain areas are associated with OCD and what do they do?

• Orbitofrontal and interior cingulate cortex

• Associated with motion, regulation, and inhibiting automatic responses

• Often un interactive and OCD

• It is difficult to know if this is related to OCD etiology and maintenance or it is a consequence of OCD

• It is a sign of imperative ability to inhibit thoughts and behaviors