Democracy and authoritarianism 25/26

definition + example + significance

The comparative method

Comparing a small number of cases to better understand their qualities and to develop and invesigate hypotheses, theories, and concepts

Significance: allows political scientists to test their theories and identify causal relationships in political systems

Example:

Variable

A changeable feature, factor, quantity, or element

Significance: variables are the basic building blocks of political analysis and allow researchers to examine relationships between political phenomena more deeply

Hypothesis

Proposed explanation for a phenomenon that can be confrimed or falsifed through observation or experimentation

Significance: guides research and allows political scientists to test their theories empirically

Dependent variable

The factor or element we wish to explain

Significance: it is the main phenomenon of interest in the study

Independent variable

The factor or eleent believed to influence the dependent variable

Significance: researchers can move beyond description and understand the cause of political phenomenon, allows to establish “cause”

comparative politics

The study of political phenomena that are within country relationships (Palombara 1974)

Example: asking why France and the UK have strong welfare states but the US doesn’t

Significance: provides a method to explain patterns across states not just describe them

methodology

The process and set of tools used to carry out a research project or investigation to reach a set of conclusions.

Significance: impacts the replicability and credibility of political research, a bad methodology can produce unreliable results

Example: Using the most similar systems design or the most different systems designs

causation (explanatory arguments)

When one political phenomenon causes another “X causes Y”: to explain something and understand why it happens

Significance: understanding causation helps EXPLAIN outcomes rather than describing them

Example: “economic development causes democratization”

description (descriptive arguments)

Describes some aspect of the world about what it is/was.

Significance: necessary first steps before explanation to ensure the explanation is based on empirical facts

Example: ‘over the past two centuries, there have been three major waves of democratization’

counterfactual

A thought experiment speculating on possible outcomes if a particular factor had been absent or had been present

Significance: it tests the logic of any causal claim and strengthen the argument

Example: what would our world look like if 9/11 ever happened?

confounding variable

An external factor that influences the IV and DV and disrupts the relationship

Significance: can create false causal conclusions

Example: there is a correlation between GDP and democracy, but strong institutions could be causing both

within case comparison

The comparative analysis of variation that takes place over time or in distinct parts of a single case

Significance: it controls for country-specific factors and is useful to trace the mechanism that caused a change overtime

Example: comparing the UK political institutions before and after BREXIT

most similar systems (qualitative method)

A research design based on using cases that are as similar as possible. Controlling for similarities and isolating the causes of differences

Significance: widely used method of qualitative analysis. controls for bg factors by holding them cosntant to isolate the cause of divergent outcome.

Example: study of attitudes towards EU membership in six founding states. The attitudes differ across countries even though they have similar contexts. Goal to figure out what is causing the difference

Weakness: hard to find truly similar systems. And even ‘similar’ countries may have hidden differences

most different systems (qualitative method)

A research design based on using cases that are as different as possible. Controlling for the differences nad isolating the causes of similarities.

Significance: if different countries share an outcome helps tests causal strength of shared factor

Example: India and Costa Rica both democratised despite different histories, economies, and regions. So cause must be a shared factor

qualitative method

A research method that uses small number of cases to understand a phenomenon hollistically and in its natural setting.

Significance: it captures the complexity in comparative politics like: context, causal mechanisms, shared values, and behaviours

Example: interviewing refugees about the causes of migration

the state

A human community that successfully claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory (Weber)

Significance: it is the fundemental unit of comparative politics and in the current international orer

Example: France has a defined territory, a government with monopoly force, and is recognised by other states

legitimacy

Recognised right to rule. A socil contract where citizens accept the rule of state in exchange for protection and services.

(Weber) three types: traditional, charismatic, and rational-legal

Significance: states that have higher legitimacy are better able to implement policies. Legitimacy ensures stability and this is key in understanding comparative politics.

Example: high legitimacy in sweden due to trust in democratic institutions. Low legitimacy in South Sudan where there is transitional government and it is being disputed.

westphalian order

Treaty of westphalia in 1648: the principle that states are the main actors on the international stage

Westphalian order:

1. each state has sovereignty over its territory and domestic affairs

2. no interference in other states’ internal affairs

3. equality among states in international law

Significance: allowed for the union of ‘state’ and ‘nation’ and led to spread of popular sovereignty and democratization. After World War 2, helped establish the liberal world order nad institutions in international politics. Why sovereignty is treated as almost sacred in IR today

Example: the UN charter is grounded in westphalian principles and states like China strongly defend non-interference.

sovereignty

States are the ultimate authority within their territories

• external: sovereignty relative to outside powers

• internal: sovereignty relative to dometic challengers

Significance: founding principle of the international order today. Is enshrined in international institutions and is the base criteria for what a state is.

Example: Palestine is recognised by 157/193 UN states as a sovereign nation but US vetoes the reso to give it full UN membership

nationalism

Ernet Gellner (1983): the political principle that holds state and nation together should be congruent.

• based in identity and culture

Significance: a powerful force that shapes state formation and collapse, explains why the map of states has changed so dramatically over the last two centuries

Example: drive for state of scotland based in nationalism since the scottish nation exists

colonial legacies

The lasting economic, social and political effects of colonialism.

Significance: explains the persistent variation in state strength today and colonial legacies created different institutions

Example: Many African states inherited borders drawn across ethnic and tribal lines resulting in: weak state apparatus, heterogenuity, and low legitimacy.

Haiti (extractive institutions established by French colonialism) vs Dominican Republic (inclusive institutions established by Spanish colonialism)

state capacity

The ability of the state to achieve its objectives

• exercise control over territory

• protection from external threats

• tax the population

• maintain institutions, rule of law, and internal order

Significance: state capacity provides insight into a state’s strength and creates a baseline in comparative politics. Also explains why formal institutions aren’t equated with good governance

Example: Singapore has very high state capacity

weak states

Have external sovereignty but lack internal sovereignty

Significance: weak states face instability and poor governance

Example: Pakistan has nuclear weapons, a formal gov and is a UN member state. But it struggles to control its border regions and deliver adequate services to its population

failed states

A state that cannot or does not perform its expected functions to the extent that it loses its sovereignty

Significance: when states fail humanitarian crises and regional instability follow, which is a key concern in IR

Example: Somalia in the 1990s-2000s when the central government collapsed leaving warlords and militias controlling different territories

fragile state index

A index that measures the fragility of states by looking at rule of law, effectiveness, autonomy, and legitimacy

• six dimensions: economic, environmental, political, security, societal, and human

Significance: provides a quantitative approach for policy makers and researchers to compare and assess state fragility between and within a state overtime

Example: Somalia ranks first as the most fragile state

institutions

Humanly devised informal and formal constraints that shape human interaction.

Significance: institutions determine who gets power, how decisions are made, and who benefits making them a central explanatory variable

Example: US constitution is a set of rules that directly determines the political processes and the rights of citizens

inclusive political institutions

Provide more political rights (compared to extractive institutions) and allow people to take part in the democratic process and remove misbehaving ones

• government provides better public services

• long-term economic development

Significance: these institutions create incentives for investment and innovatino and great long-term prosperity and stable governance

Example: Botswana after independence had relatively open property rights, rule of law and broad political participation

extractive political institutions

Aim at direct control, benefiting local elites at the expense of the population

• no elections, limited political rights

Significance: explains persistent poverty and state weakness (especially with former colonies)

Example: North Korea has very extractive institutions with concentrated power

endogenous democratization theory + critique

In debate on if economic development causes development. This theory says YES!

economic growth increases the ruling elites’ incentives to democratize

Significance: argues that democracy emerges from within society during development rather than being imposed externally

Example: South Korea democratized after rapid industrialization

Critique: Acemoglu and Robinson: there is correlation betwen economic development and democracy but not causation. They are both caused by inclusive institutions (eg: haiti and dominican republic)

the welfare state

A state design when government-protected minimum standards of income, nutrition, health, housing and education, assured to every citizen as POLITICAL RIGHT (Wilensky 1975)

Significance: represents the expansion of state responsibility into social protection

Example: Sweden has universal healthcare, free uni education, and great unemployment benefits

minimalist definition of democracy (procedural)

A regime where leaders are selected through competitive elections. Focuses on procedures + institutions. (Schumpeter 1942).

Often measured by Polity that looks at democracy from -10 to 10.

Significance: makes democracy measurable and comparable across states, since it only measures the competitiveness of elections. But has been argued that this definition is too narrow since countries can hold elections while still repressing minorities and concentrating executive power.

Example: Hungary during Viktor Orban still had competitive elections so under this definition was still democratic.

maximallist definition of democracy (substantive definition)

Includes free and fair elections as well as political and civil liberties, social and economic rights, accountability, equity, social inclusion, and civil society involvement.

Significance: provides a review of the “quality” of a democracy and what it is supposed to deliver in addition to a procedural view.

Example: Norway fits this definition it has strong rights and political participation

representative democracy

‘Rule by the people’ which means that citizens elect officials to make decisions and represent their competition and cooperation. Citizens hold them accountable.

Significance: this is the dominant form of modern democracy.

Example: UK parliament where citizens elect MPs to make decisions on their behalf

guardrails of democracy

Institutional guardrails:

• independent judificary (courts check executive and legislative power)

• electoral rule (fair elections, secret bellots, term limits)

• strong political parties: no demagogues leaders

• checks and balances: separation of powers

Behavioural and norm-based guardrails

• mutual toleration

• institutional forbearance

• respect for conventions

modernization theory

Development increases democratic pressures from the middle and working class and causes democratize:

• rise in education

• taxation —> demand for representation

• urbanization and growth of the middle class

Significance: one of the most influential and debated theories in comparative politics

Example: South Korea democratized after rapid economic growth

Critiques: china and saudi arabia have developed but still not democracies

democratization

The process of autocracies transitioning to democracies

Significance: observing this process is a central aspect of comparative politics to understand the factors pushing it

Example: Indonesia transitioned into a democracy after 1998 protests

constitutionalism

Self-limiting government through the separation of powers between executive, legislature, and judicial branches

Significance: asserts idea that government power must be constrained by law; example of how democracy can be built in courts and independent institutions

Example: Germany’s Basic Law includes an “eternity clause” where certain principles cannot be amended by parliamentary supermajority —> to prevent another Hitler-style takeover

democratic backsliding

A modern and incremental elite-driven movement away from democracy that occurs in three steps.

1. Political polarization

2. Autocratic politicians gain office

3. Autocrats start changing the rules of the democratic games

Significance: this is the central threat to democracy today, elected officials who dismantle democratic institutions

Example: Hungary under Orban after 2010: he rewrote the constitution, gerrymandered districts, restricted the media, and polarized the population based on identity politics

democratic consolidation

Creating enduring and resilutent democratic institutions that permit peaceful electoral turnover

Significance: this is a crucial step in “democratization”, it strengthens a democracy when both elites and citizens cna acc

Example: spain after 1978 transition, by 1980s all major parties accepted democratic rules and the military stayed out of politics

democratic u-turn

When countries go from autocratizing in the recent past to actively democratizing.

Significance: this concept captures that democratization is not a linear process and the rate of it can change. Studying this also shows that democratizing/authoritarizing depends on internal factor.

Example: Poland began autocratizing in 2015 when the PiS government was elected (media suppression, biased judicial system, propaganda). In 2023 the opposition part defeated PiS in national parliamentary elections and then Poland’s V-Dem score began increasing.

executive aggrandizement

Increase in government control over areas not previously under government control or beyond exisitng checks and balances

Significance: Haggard Kaufman identify this as the primary reason behind modern backsliding. Democracy is dismantled from within.

Example: Hungary under Viktor Orban, systematically concentrated power by weaking checks and balances. Utilized supermajorities to change constitution and eroded judicial independence and skewed electoral rules.

political polarization

A process through which political elites and mass public become increasingly divided over public policy, ideology and partisan attachments.

Significance: Haggard and Kaufman argue that this is a key enabler of backsliding. Autocratic leaders can better justify non-democratic actions to a divided society and cross-party coalitions weaken.

Example: Republicans and Democrats in the United States increasingly view each other as existential threats based on identity and not just politics.

authoritarian regimes/autocracy/authoritarianism

Term that encompasses many different types of government united by the fact tha tthere is no transfer of power thru free and fair elections. Regimes that have no electoral turnover in the power of the executive.

Significance: this is the dominant regime type globally so understand these types of regimes is crucial in comparative politics and also understanding democracy

Example: Russia under Putin, elections are held but are not free or fair and opposition is suppressed, judiciary serves the executive

totalitarianism

Regimes with extreme forms of dictatorship. Executive has complete control of the state and society charismatic leader and personality cults that are based on ideology.

Significance: is a more extreme form of authoritarian rule than ordinary autocracy and is much harder to overthrow from within so disctinct patterns of repression.

Example: North Korea is the last remaining totalitariam regime. Kim Jong Un is the dictator

military regimes

A group of officers who decides they will rule and exercise some influence on policy.

Significance: one of Geddes’ three core authoritarian types of regimes.

Example: Myanmar 2021 onwards

single-party regimes

When access to political office and control over policy are dominated by one party, through other parties may legally exist and compete in elections.

Significance: One of Geddes’ three core authoritarian types of regimes. Identifies this as the most durable authoritarian type of regime since provides mechanism for elite co-optation

Example: China from 1949 onwards. Has been ruled by the Chinese Communist Party since then but other parties are legally allowed to exist.

personalist regimes

Access to office and the fruits of office depends on the discretion of an individual leader.

Significance: One of Geddes’ three core authoritarian types of regimes. Tends to be the most erratic and most violent type of regime because it faces no institutional constraints. Also most vulnerable (ex: fell after gaddafi’s death)

Example: Muammar Gaddafi in Libya, power was concentrated entirely in one individual for 42 years. Survival of the regime depended on him entirely.

monarchic authoritarian regime

Form of dictatorial government where the head of government has the title of “King” and has a hereditary successor.

Significance: One of (Cheibub et al 2010)’s categorical classifications for a type of authoritarian regime. Shows that authoritarian rule doesn’t require modern ideological justification and that traditional/religious legitimacy can sustain generations of a regime.

Example: Saudi Arabia where power is hereditary within the Al Saud family, legitimised through religious authority/tradition

co-optation

Using regime-sanctioned political parties to maintain a loyal popular base by distributing material benefits, political access, career opportunities, etc.

Significance: This is a way for authoritarian regimes to maintain control (Svolik), it is a soft-power approach that is a less obvious method of authoritarizing a regime.

Example: In the US trump establishing a competitive autocracy through co-optation of the elites. Using the state’s powers to award federal contracts, grant tax waivers and enforce regulations to ensure compliance from business and media. (Levitsky and Way)

repression

Relying on military or violence to suppress opposition.

Significance: This is a way for authoritarian regimes to maintain control (Svolik). But also repression creates a risk for backlash and can delegitimise the regime internationally.

Example: Gaddafi during the Arab Spring used violence to repress protestors against his regime and thus drew international scrutiny.

coup d’etat (coup)

When the dictator or authoritarian regime is overthrown internally. In a contested autocracy allies can credibly threaten a coup but in an established autocracy, a coup is not effective.

Significance: 2/3 of dictators are removed from office with a coup or regime insider.

Example: Mali coup in 2021 that replaced Keita with a military ruler

competitive authoritatian regimes

When a regime contains elements of democracy and authoritarianism. Civil regimes where formal democratic institutions exist and are seen as the primary means of gaining power but an incumbent’s abuse of the state places them at an advantage over their opponents.

Significance: Levitsky and Way argue that this is a hybrid category between a full demorcacy and autocracy so these regimes are hard to classify and hard to challenge. Also that most autocratizing regimes will rest at this point rather than becoming full dictatorships.

Example: Levitsky and Way argue that the US is turning into a competitive autocracy because of: the purging of bureaucracy, targeted prosecution of political rivals, and co-optation of elites.

the problem of authoritarian power-sharing (Svolik, 2012)

Usually dictator is not powerful enough to rule independently so requires allies (raises issue of how to share power). Complicated by two issues:

1. no independent authority to enforce agreements among key political actors

2. omnipresence of violence as the ultimate way to settle conflict

Significance: this is Svolik’s first core problem with authoritarian regimes since autocrats need elites to rule but can’t make binding commitments to share power and there is no neutral enforcer which creates instability

Example: Saddam Hussein constantly reshuffled inner circle, executed rivals, and relied on family for key positions because he could ever trust elites he depended on to stay in power.

the problem of authoritarian control (Svolik, 2012)

Conflict exists between the ruling elite and the masses who are excluded from power. Balance against threat from the masses. So dictators use two methods to control this conflict:

1. repression

2. co-optation

Significance: Svolik’s second core problem with autocracies. Keeping the general population from rebelling in autocracies is costly, and the balance struck between the cost and control shape how durable a regime is.

Example: al-Asad’s response to Arab Spring in Syria involved both co-optation (subsidies and salary raises) and repression (arrests and live rounds).

‘categorical’ (Geddes 1999) vs ‘continuous’ (Svolik 2012) typologies of authoritarianism

Categorical (Geddes):

1. Military regimes

2. Single-party regimes

3. Personalist-regimes

Justification for this approach: classification is based on the anture of the elite that controls regime.

Categorical (Cheibub et al 2010): monarchic, military, civilian

Critique of categorical (Svolik): the categories aren’t mutually exclusive or completely exhaustive. Also bundles factors together which creates unreliable measurement and flawed inferences.

• Ex: Syria (1970-2000) ruled by one dictator which created highly concentrated rule. Single-party regime but key posts held by military officers. Is this single-party, military, or personalist?

Dimensional approach (Svolik 2012)

Agreement with Geddes: dictators can’t govern independently and must interact with other elites and institutions

Difference: regimes are based on the dimension of political organizations not in category classifications:

1. military involvement: extent and nature of their role

2. restrictions on political parties: number of other parties allowed

3. legislative selection: degree to which there is elected legislature

4. executive selection: degree to which there is an elected executive

Significance: both models are different ways to classify authoritarian regimes

Example: Syria

weaponization of the state

The systematic use of government institutions, agencies, and power by an incumbent regime to disadvantage and weaken political opponents while rewarding allies.

Significance: this is a key mechanism in Levitsky and Way’s account of competitive authoritarianism. This makes it much more difficult to identify the process of democratic backsliding/authorcratizing.

Example: Trump is weaponising the state by using economic pressure on businesses leaders so that they may conclude it is more profitable to avoid financing opposition candidates under the threat of losing gov contracts. (META and Amazon)

constitutions (sweet in caramani 6e paraphrase)

A body of hierarchal meta-norms, legal rules, principles and procedures that specify how all other norms should be produced, applied, and enforced.

Significance: the foundation rules that structure all other political institutions in a state. They determine how power is distributed/constrained and they shape the effectiveness of forms of governance.

Example: the US constitution (1787) sets out the separation of powers between executive, legislative, and judiciary.

presidential system

A system where the executive, legislative, and judiciary branches are clearly separated.

• president is head of state and head of government and elected by electorate for fixed term (executive)

• president appoints cabinet to advise them and run state bureacracies

• legislature also directly elected by the electorate

• president initiaties legislation but legislature branch votes to pass it into law

Significance: separation of power between exec and legislature creates checks on executive authority but can produce gridlock. Central debate about if presidentialism helps/hinders democratic stability

Example: US presidential system is the oldest one. Executive = president with support of cabinet and ministers. Legislature = Congress (senate and house of reps)

parliamentary system

A system where the executive is drawn from and responsible to the legislature. ‘Fusion of powers’ since executive is often part of the legislature.

• PM (head of government) is head of executive and has a cabinet/council of ministers that share responsibilites of government action

• Legislation is parliament (electoral vote) that may remove an executive with a vote of no confidence and maintains accountability with question time

• head of state: monarch/president is a ceremonial role

Significance: fusion of the executive and legislative power makes government more efficient and accountable since the executive must always maintain legislative support.

Example: UK parliamentary system. Head of state = monarch. Head of government = prime minister. Government drawn from Members of Parliaments and elected House of Comons. (Boris Johnson removed with vote of no confidence)

semi-presidential system

Popularly elected, fixed term president sits with a PM and cabinet that are responsible to parliament

• president appoints a head of government (PM) who can command parliamentary majority

• pres shares executive tasks with PM and gov accountable to parliament

• when pres and PM from same party, pres is in charge, when opposing parties then cohabitation

Significance: attempts to combine the legitimacy of a directly elected exec with parliamentary accountability. But having dual exec can sometimes produce conflict.

Example: France since the 1958 constitution. President elected and handles foreign policy. PM drawn from parliament majority and handles domestic policy

cohabitation

When the PM and president are from different parties but they share the executive office. Issues: deadlock between president and prime minister

Significance: this is unique to semi-presidential systems and shows how constitutional design creates different power sharing dynamics.

Example: In France when the execs are from different parties they cohabitate the exec office.

veto players (Tsebelis, 2002)

Individual or collective actors whose agreement is necesary for a change of the status quo. Institutional veto playesr like the president/PM, or partisan veto players like parliamentary majority

Significance: the more veto players, the harder it is to change or create policy. Explains why some democracies are more responsive and others more resistant.

Example: In the US a bill must pass 3 veto players: house of representatives, the senate and the president.

vote of no-confidence

In the parliamentary system, the legislative branch may remove the government/executive with a vote of no confidence.

Significance: crucial aspect of accountability in the parliamentary system. Executive can never fully ignore the legislature

Example: UK parliament passed a vote of no confidence and removed Boris Johnson from office in 2022.

majoritarian electoral systems

The party or candidate receiving the most votse wins. Goal is to find the most popular candidate in each constituency.

Two types: plurality (first-past-the-post) and absolute majority (candidates need 50%+ to win).

Significance: tends to create strong single-party governments where constiuents can hold their rep accountable. But creates disprop harm where small parties’ votes aren’t turned into seats.

Example: UK’s first-past-the-post sysetm where the candidate with the most votes in each constituency wins.

proportional electoral systems

Parties seat share is proportional to their votes: goal is to divide seats among parties in proportion to votes.

Two types: List PR (citizens cast votes for various kinds of party lists) and Single Transferable Vote (citizens cast votes for individual candidates)

Significance: more diverse parties emerge, more proportional fit between vote share and seat share. Less accountability between voters and elected officials and can produce slow coalition governments.

Example: Netherlands, seats in parliament are alloted almost exactly proportional to part'y’s national vote share.

mixed electoral systems

Combination of majoritarian and proportional systems.

Two types: Independent (majoritarian and proportional elements work independetly) and dependent (proportional element compensates for majoritarian element)

Significance: tries to capture the benefits of both systems (local rep and proportionality) Textbook says is a seperate mixed category.

Example: in Germany voters cast two ballots, one for local constituency (majoritarian) and one for the party list (proportional)

elections/electoral

The organised choice, by vote, of a person, for a position

district magnitude

The number of seats corresponding to each constituency

Significance: higher magnitude = more proportional outcome and more parties.

Example: Single-member districts (UK, Canada)

ballot structure

How voters express their choice, such as voting for one candidate only, versus the ability to rank candidates.

Significance: shapes voter choice and strategic behaviour

Example: In UK you vote for a single candidate, but in Australia they use preferrential voting

gerrymandering

The manipulation of district boundaries to generate electoral advantage for a particular party

Significance: shows that electoral rules can be manipulated even within formally democratic systems. It is a key tool of democratic backsliding

Example: debate over district boundaries in the US (Maryland)

functions of democratic elections

1. choosing who occupies office at different levels

2. ensuring representation of citizen’s interests

3. voting for policies and people to implement them

4. voting against incumbents to punish bad outcomes

Significance: provide accountability, representation and mechanisms for peaeful changing of power

Example: Regular elections in Canada allow peaceful changing of power

functions of autocratic elections

elections in autocratic regime often serve a purpose for regime survival:

1. elite power sharing: provide a regularized method of sharing power among ruling party politicians

2. signaling invincibility

3. gathering info about geographic distribution of supporters

4. co-opting the opposition: allowing opp parties to hold seats in legislature so regime traps them into investing in existing institutions

political party (Huckshorn)

Autonomous group of citizens aiming to gain government control by making nominations and contesting elections (Huckshorn). Functions:

1. organised groups

2. contest elcetions

3. aim to gain public office

4. representation

Significance: parties are teh central organisers of democratic competition

Example: Labour Party UK

elite party/cadre party

Type of party with intra-parliamentary origin. Members are often parliamentarians and is built on personal wealtha dn connections.

Significance: the original party form that emerged after universal suffrage

Example: 19th century european libreal and conservative parties.

mass party

Type of party with extra-parliamentary origin. Members are based on ideological membership.

Significance: emerged to represent the under-represented or the working class, bringing ordinary citizens into organised political life

Example: UK Labour from late 19th century

challenger party

Parties that challenge the established party system and dominant parties within that system. Don’t have established government experience initially.

Significance: reveal changing political demands and critiques that established parties are increasingly failing to represent citizens

Example: Fidesz in its early phases in Hungary (+ lesson that can turn into autocratic party)

party family

Parties that have similar ideologies and party programmes

Significance: allows cross-national comparison of parties

Example: green parties exist in UK Austria Belgium Canada and Japan

party system

Pattern of interaction and competition between parties in a country over time

Significance: the number and strength of parties shapes how governments are formed and how stable they are. party systems can explain variations across democracies

Example: dominant party system, two-party system (UK Conservative and Labour), multiparty system, bipolar party system

social cleavages

A division of interest and values within a society, opposing groups structurally, culturally, and organizationally

Significance: created by historical revolutions and explain the alignment of parties against or with each other

Example: Industrial revolution created rural-urban cleavage

social movement

streams of public unconventional participation that target policy makers through community and media events, often disrupting regular social life

1. mobilized network of grps

2. resting on collective identity

3. aims to bring about or resist fundamental change of society

4. public/collective protest primarily

Significance: show how citizens collectively challenge formal institution channels and make political change

Example: BLM

repertoires of contention

The complete set of protest tactics available to a social movement at any time.

Significance: showing how social movements draw on historically developed toolkits of collective action

Example: BLM used distruptive direct action, digital mobilization, cultural performance, and community organization

maximalist campaigns

Social movement with the goal of maximum political transformation

Significance: Chenoweth’s research shows that maximalist non-violent campaigns are histprically more successsful

Example: movement to end apartheid in South Africa

new autocratic alliance

Growing cooperation between autocatic regimes against domestic challengers

Significance: Chenoweth argument that authoritarian regimes are no longer isolated T

Example: Russia and China providing diplomatic cover and financial support to smaller authoritarian regimes (ex: Belarus)

tactical innovation

The emergence of new protest tactics that can also occur in recombination with existing tactics

Significance: movements that create new tactics gain a temporary advantage

Example: US Civil Rights movement sit-in. Xex strikes/social shaming/cultural performances,

selective repression

When an authoritarian regime deliberately targets only key leaders to slow down or break momentum of a social movement.

Significance: Chenoweth arguemnt that misogyny and authoritarianism are muitually enforcing, so regimes target women to weaken social movements.

Example: increasing state control over the female body/hypermasculinity and patriotic femininity discourse