Psychology Study Notes

Skinner's Behaviorism

Skinner's Behaviorism

Psychological approach focused on observable behavior and reinforcement

Milgram's Obedience experiment

Experiment demonstrating people's tendency to obey authority figures

Rosenhan's test of psychiatric diagnoses

Experiment challenging the validity of psychiatric diagnoses

Darley & Latane's Bystander Effect experiments

Experiments showing the diffusion of responsibility in group situations

Festingers theory of Cognitive Dissonance

Theory explaining the discomfort of holding conflicting beliefs

Harry Harlow's attachment experiments

Experiments with monkeys highlighting the importance of contact comfort

"Rat Park" addiction experiment

Experiment challenging the idea that addiction is solely caused by drug exposure

Elizabeth Loftus and false memory experiments

Research on the malleability of memory and the creation of false memories

Psychosurgery and lobotomy

Medical procedures involving the surgical alteration of brain tissue

Wundt and Titchner: Structuralism

Early psychological approach focused on analyzing the structure of consciousness

James and Functionalism

Psychological approach emphasizing the adaptive functions of behavior

Watson, Skinner, Freud

Founders of major psychological approaches: behaviorism, behaviorism, and psychoanalysis

Biopsychosocial approach

Psychological approach considering biological, psychological, and social factors

Hindsight bias

Tendency to believe that an event was predictable after it has occurred

Theory

Explanation that organizes and predicts phenomena

Hypothesis

Testable prediction based on a theory

Operational definition

Clear and measurable definition of a variable

Independent variable

Variable manipulated by the researcher

Confounding variables

Factors other than the independent variable that may influence the results

Case study

In-depth analysis of an individual or small group

Naturalistic and lab observations

Methods of gathering data in real-world or controlled settings

Surveys and framing effects

Questionnaires and the influence of wording on responses

Validity and reliability

Accuracy and consistency of measurement

Random sampling

Selection of participants by chance

Representative sampling

Selection of participants that accurately represents the population

Sampling bias

Bias in participant selection that leads to unrepresentative samples

Random selection and assignment

Randomly assigning participants to groups

Double- and single-blind procedures

Methods to reduce bias in research by withholding information

Experimental and control groups

Groups that receive different treatments or no treatment

correlation

Relationship between variables where they either increase or decrease together

Statistical significance

Likelihood that a result is not due to chance

Scatterplot

Graph displaying the relationship between two variables

Histogram

Graph showing the distribution of a variable

Normal distribution/ bell curve

Symmetrical distribution of data around a central mean

Measures of central tendency

Mean, median, and mode

Sensory memory

Brief storage of sensory information

Chunking

Organizing information into meaningful units

Echoic memory

Auditory sensory memory

Iconic memory

Visual sensory memory

Mnemonics

Memory aids or strategies

Spacing and testing effects

Studying techniques that enhance long-term memory

Shallow v. deep processing

Superficial v. meaningful encoding of information

Hippocampus

Brain region involved in forming and retrieving memories

Cerebellum

Brain region involved in procedural memory and coordination

Basal ganglia

Brain region involved in procedural learning and habit formation

Frontal lobes

Brain region involved in working memory and executive functions

Broca's area

Brain region involved in language production

Wernicke's area

Brain region involved in language comprehension

Long-term memory

Relatively permanent storage of information

Short-term memory

Temporary storage of information

Explicit memory

Conscious and intentional memory retrieval

Implicit memory

Unconscious memory retrieval

Effortful processing

Conscious and deliberate encoding of information

Automatic processing

Unconscious encoding of information

Parallel processing

Simultaneous processing of multiple aspects of information

Encoding

Process of getting information into memory

Storage

Process of retaining information in memory

Retrieval

Process of accessing stored information

Sensory memory

Brief storage of sensory information

Space, time, and frequency

Factors that can influence memory

Priming

Activation of associations in memory

Serial position effect

Tendency to remember the first and last items in a list

Mood effect on memory

Emotional state influencing memory retrieval

Amnesia

Memory loss due to brain injury or disease

Retrograde amnesia

Inability to recall past memories

Anterograde amnesia

Inability to form new memories

Encoding failure

Failure to encode information into long-term memory

Interference

Disruption of memory retrieval due to competing information

Proactive interference

Older memories interfere with the retrieval of new memories

Retroactive interference

New memories interfere with the retrieval of old memories

Misinformation effect

Incorporation of misleading information into memory

Source amnesia

Inability to remember the source of a memory

Repression

Unconscious blocking of traumatic memories

Prototype

Mental image or best example of a category

Convergent thinking

Narrowing down options to find a single correct answer

Divergent thinking

Generating multiple creative solutions

Algorithms

Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb

Insight

Sudden realization of a problem's solution

Intuition

Automatic, effortless feeling or thought

Confirmation bias

Tendency to search for information that confirms preconceptions

Overconfidence

Tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs

Belief perseverance

Tendency to cling to one's initial beliefs

Mental set

Tendency to approach a problem with a familiar mindset

Language

System of communication using symbols and rules

Phonemes

Smallest units of sound in a language

Morphemes

Smallest units of meaning in a language

Grammar

System of rules in a language

Aphasia

Impairment of language caused by brain damage

Attribution Theory

Theory explaining how people explain the behavior of others

Fundamental Attribution Error

Tendency to overestimate internal factors and underestimate external factors when explaining others' behavior

Collectivist/Individualist cultures

Cultures that prioritize group or individual goals

Peripheral/Central Route Persuasion

Methods of persuasion based on peripheral or central cues

Foot-in-the-door Phenomenon

Tendency for people to comply with a small request before a larger one

Social norms

Unwritten rules of acceptable behavior in a society

Cognitive dissonance theory

Theory explaining the discomfort of holding conflicting beliefs

Automatic Mimicry

Unconscious imitation of others' behavior

Normative and Informational Social Influence

Types of influence based on desire for acceptance or information

Conformity and obedience to authority

Tendency to adjust behavior to match group norms or follow orders

Social facilitation

Improved performance in the presence of others