AP Euro- The Age of Nation-States

Crimean war- cause and effects.

The war was rooted in the longstanding desire of Russia to extend its influence over the Ottoman empire. 2 disputes led to the conflict. First, Russia had been given protective oversight over orthodox christians, and france was given oversight over roman catholics. In 1851, the sultan placed the care of holy places in palestine to the roman catholics, which angered Russia. Secondly, Russia wanted Moldavia and Walachia so they used their right to protect christians to occupy both provinces. After russia lost in the following war, the treaty of Paris was signed which shattered the image of an invincible Russia, and also shattered the concert of Europe.

Tanzimat

It was an attempt and reform and reorganization in the Ottoman empire. It broke down the millet system, tried to elicit christian loyalty, sought to define subjects as ottoman and not separate communities, and reorganized military and administration along European lines. The Hatt-i Sharif extended civil equality to everyone regardless of religion, and all religions were equal before the law. Hatt-i Humayun had more explicit rights for non-muslims and abolished torture. The reforms were unsuccessful because some regions were independent and implemented their own change, the ulema were resistant to change, power struggles broke out in the capital, and growing nationalism played a contributing role.

Italian Unification

Secret romantic republican societies were founded throughout Europe like the Carbonari, but were ineffective. Leadership of romantic republican nationalism passed to Giuseppe Mazzini, who brought a new fervor to the cause of uniting Italy. He and Garibaldi led insurrections and guerilla warfare across Italy. The prime minister of piedmont, Cavour, believed that if Italy could be efficient and progressive, the great powers would let them rule themselves. He used the Crimean war to bring Italy into European politics and helped France to achieve their sympathy. France saw Italy as a potential ally against Austria, so they created a plan to provoke Austria. All of the territories in italy banded together for the war, and once the Italian war against Austria started, France intervened and defeated Austria at Magenta. Meanwhile, Garibaldi had been conquering Italy, but his nationalism won out and he gave in to piedmont. Victor Emmanuel was crowned king shortly after. Instead of a progressive government, a process called Transformismo (turning political enemies to your side through bribery) took root. Many believed Italy was not yet unified because of this and territories left out like Trieste and Trent.

German unification

William I of Prussia was facing political problems like his 2 year deadlock with parliament over taxes for military reform until he recruited Otto von Bismarck. Bismarck supported a kleindeutsch policy to german unification in which Austria was excluded from german affairs. The problem of Schleswig and Holstein let Bismarck start his policy. Holstein originally belonged to the germans, but denmark made moves to occupy it. Austria and Prussia defeated denmark and Austria got Holstein and prussia schleswig. After Bismarck negotiated with the major powers to join him or stay neutral, he provoked austria to war. Austria was defeated and removed from german affairs, and the northern german confederation was formed. To achieve a united germany, Bismarck used spain’s newly crowned hohenzollern monarch to provoke france. The french were angered and sent an ambassador to consult William I at Bad ems. the negotiations went smoothly, much to Bismarck’s distress. He then released an edited version of the negotiation to provoke france. southern german states joined war against france and they lost, losing alsace and lorraine. Germany was united and both France and austria were most affected.

Napoleon III

Napoleons reign was divided into an authoritarian part and a liberal part with the plit year being 1860. After the coup in 1851, Napoleon controlled the legislature, censored press, and harrassed political dissidents. His supporters were the army, property owners, the french catholic church, and business people. Then in 1860, he concluded free trade with Britain and freer debate in the legislature. By the late 1860’s he relaxed press laws, allowed labor unions, and allowed a liberal constitution. This was all to shore up domestic support through his foreign failures. After a loss against germany, he was captured in the battle of sedan and a third republic was declared.

Paris

Monarchists dominated the national assembly and gave power to Adolphe Thiers who negotiated a settlement with prussia. Parisians that suffered during the siege resented the national assembly for this betrayal. They elected their own government, the paris commune, to administer paris separately. During April and May the national assembly surrounded and attacked the city. The commune became a legend around Europe, and marxists regarded it as a genuine proletarian government suppressed by the bourgeoisie even though the commune was mainly made up of bourgeoisie.

The Third Republic

Dual Monarchy

The dual monarchy of Hungary and Austria came about when Francis Joseph issued the October Diploma to create local diets, but the Magyars refused the plan. He then issued the February Patent which created a bicameral legislature, or reichsrat, with an upper and lower chamber. Magyars sent no delegation for six years until Prussia defeated Austria, so Francis Joseph agreed to Ausgleich after secret negotiations before their defeat showed no concrete results. Habsburg empire became Austria-Hungary, but other than a common monarch they were almost wholly separate states.

Habsburg empire

Many nationalities wanted the settlement that the Hungarians got- to govern themselves. Many groups such as croats, czechs, ruthenians, and romanians opposed Ausgelich because the Magyars dominated all the other nationalities. Czechs wanted a triple monarchy, but Magyars shot them down. For 20 years, czechs were placated by patronage and seats in bureaucracy. In 1897, Francis Joseph gave equality of language to germans and czechs. Germans opposed this by disrupting the parliament, and czechs responded in kind. This obstructionism in the Reichsrat paralyzed parliamentary life. In 1907, Francis joseph introduced male suffrage in austria, but chaos still reigned in the Reichsrat. Constitutionalism became a dead letter in Austria.

Reforms of Alexander

After russia’s defeat in the crimean war, the government was compelled to reform. They abolished serfdom- though serfs still owed landowners money and many were not free. They reorganized the local government by making councils that oversaw local matters, and a western judicial system. After their military floundered, they reduced enlistment time and relaxed discipline. He also russified poland and treated it like a province. His reforms aroused hope but people were discontented with the limited character. Populists drew on Herzen’s criticisms and sought social revolution based on peasant communal life. Nihilists vented anger by expounding radical ideas, and they started from a failed movement of living with peasants. Anarchism led by ideas of Mikhail Bakunin wanted to overthrow the government. Society “the will of the people” split from the populist group “land of freedom” and killed Alexander II.

Gladstone and Disraeli

The conservative ministry led by Benjamin Disraeli introduced a reform bill. During the debate, he expanded the electorate in hopes that new voters would be grateful towards him. However he lost to William Gladstone. Gladstone was more liberal and replaced patronage in civil service, abolished purchase of officer ranks, started secret ballots, and established government run schools. After Gladstone, Disraeli took office. Disraeli had few specific programs or ideas as most important social legislation were efforts of his secretary. There was the public health act that reaffirmed the duty of the state to interfere on private property for health reasons, and passed an artisan dwelling act to provide homes for the working class.

The Irish Question

During Gladstone’s first ministry, he addressed the irish question- irish independence- through two pieces of legislation. First, he disestablished the church of ireland and then sponsored a land act to provide compensation for tenants and loans for land. Charles parnell was the leader of the Irish movement that organized the house of common irish members to vote as a bloc. Irish held the balance of power and voted for the liberal ministry when Gladstone announced his support for irish rule. However, they still lost. The conservative ministry attempted to reconcile, but had little success. Gladstone later returned to power but Ireland did not become independent until after WWI.