Define caregiver-infant interaction
Any social interaction between caregiver and infant
Reciprocity
Interactional Synchrony
What is the difference between reciprocity and IS?
Reciprocity is any two-way interaction between a caregiver and infant like a conversation in which both are active contributors
IS is a two-way interaction between caregiver and infant wherein both behaviour and emotions are mirrored, which allows us to discern the quality of interaction
Outline Meltzoff and Moore's study
Meltzoff and Moore found newborns younger than 2 weeks old reciprocated an adult's expression (based on behavioural categories of tongue protrusion and mouth opening) with a .92 inter-observer reliability
Evaluate caregiver-infant interactions
DeYong found that infants who interacted with objects simulating the behavioural categories in Meltzoff and Moore’s study made little response, which suggests them to be social
Isabella found that mothers with low or high interactional synchrony had children with insecure attachment types
Social Sensitivity; Negative implications for working mothers and certain social groups
Outline Schaffer and Emerson's Study
A longitudinal study of babies in Glasgow where babies were visited and mothers interviewed every month for 12 months, then at 18 months
50% of babies displayed separation anxiety by 30 weeks
80% of babies displayed separation anxiety by 40 weeks
78% of infants developed multiple attachments by one year
Outline Schaffer's stages of attachment
Pre-Attachment (0-2 months): Preference for social stimuli, no stranger or separation anxiety
Indiscriminate Attachment (2-7 months): Attachments with people and objects
Discriminate Attachment (7-9 months): Separation anxiety with primary attachment figure
Multiple Attachment (9 months+): Stranger Anxiety
Evaluate Schaffer's stages of attachment
Methodology; Longitudinal study but only composed of 60 infants from middle-class in Glasgow
Bushnell found 2/3rd of newborns preferred their mother's face to strangers, indicating that the pre-attachment stage may be wrong
Cultural relativism; Sagi observed that babies in collectivist cultures formed multiple attachments from the onset
Outline Lorenz's study
Lorenz found that goslings hatched naturally imprinted onto their natural mother, while goslings hatched in an incubator imprinted onto Lorenz.
Goslings only imprinted during a critical period of 4-25 hours and Lorenz noted the process to be irreversible
Evaluate Lorenz's study
Guiton found chicks imprinted onto rubber gloves while being fed for their first few weeks, which supports imprinting as not being specific to species
Guiton additionally found that while chicks initially tried mating with rubber gloves, the chicks would later engaged in normal sexual behaviour with chicks
Outline Harlow's study procedures
Harlow placed 16 baby monkeys into 4 conditions
Cloth mother effigy with milk
Wire mother effigy with milk
Cloth mother effigy without milk
Wire mother effigy without milk
Harlow found that monkeys preferred the cloth mother over the wire mother regardless of whether the cloth mother produced milk, as the monkeys would cling to the cloth mother even in distress
Evaluate Harlow's study
Green states that all mammals possess the same biological brain structure
Ethics; Monkeys suffered extreme mental distress and long-term consequences
Define Bowlby's attachment theory
Bowlby believed attachment was innately programmed to help babies survive through monotropy, a single emotional bond between an infant and primary attachment figure, who would be attached with during the infant's critical period
Outline CrIIMPS
Cr - Critical Period (2 years) I - Innate Programming I - Internal Working Model M - Monotropy P - Proximity S - Social Releasers
Evaluate Bowlby's Monotropic Theory
Based on imprinting in Lorenz's study, which is an animal study and may not be applicable to humans
Harlow found baby monkeys preferred close contact with their mother over food
Social sensitivity; Burman and feminists believe Bowlby places too much emphasis on women and pushes them into a particular lifestyle
Outline the Learning Theory of attachment
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Define classical and operant conditioning
CC: NS becomes associated with UCS, which evokes an UCR, and becomes the CS that evokes an CR
OC: Animals have 'drives' that motivates behaviour, such as discomfort, which is alleviated by the PR that is supplied and associated with the SR
Evaluate the learning theory of attachment
Based on animal studies such as Pavlov's dogs and Skinner's research with mice and pigeons, which may not be generalisable to humans
Harlow found that monkeys would prefer the cloth mother even if the wire mother produced food
Reductionist; calls attachment a stimulus response but Isabella found that the quality of child-caregiver interaction was important
Define Ainsworth's Strange Situation
A controlled experiment to test the nature of attachment in infants aged between 9-18 months through a stressful situation
Outline types of attachment
Secure
Insecure Avoidant (Avoids social interaction)
Insecure Resistant (Seeks but rejects intimacy)
Outline Ainsworth's Strange Situation procedures
Caretaker plays with infant
Caretaker sits and lets infant play alone
Stranger enters room and speaks with caretaker then mother; caretaker leaves
Stranger talks to infant while caretaker is absent
Stranger leaves and caretaker returns
Infant alone in room
Stranger enters room and interacts with infant
Stranger leaves and caretaker returns
Outline Ainsworth's Strange Situation findings
66% secure attachment
22% insecure avoidant
12% insecure resistant
Evaluate Ainsworth's Strange Situation
Vaughn and Waters conducted the SS at the child’s home and found similar results to Ainsworth
Bick found Ainsworth's SS to have a .94 inter-observer reliability, and Vaughn and Waters did a SS variation at the infants' homes and found similar results
Cultural relativism; Japanese children rarely separated from mothers, so Takahashi found children displayed high separation anxiety
Outline Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg's study
A meta analysis of 32 SS studies across the world from 8 different countries
Secure attachment was most common
Insecure-avoidant was the second most common in individualist cultures
Insecure-resistant was the second most common in Japan and Israel (collectivist cultures)
Intra-cultural differences were 1.5 times greater than inter-cultural differences
Evaluate Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg's study
SS is highly controlled and replicable, which leads to less confounding variables, though highly controlled nature may lead to demand characteristics
Ethnocentric research; Based on American ideals, but Rothenbaum found negative 'clingy' behaviour in the west was considered healthy in Japan
Posada found the nature of security to be similar across cultures, which suggest universality and nurture over nature
Define Bowlby's theory of maternal deprivation.
Separation from their mother, especially during a child's 2.5 year CR, leads to the degradation of the child's mental health, which could risk intellectual and behavioural disorders such as affectionless psychopathy
Outline Bowlby's 44 Thieves study
Bowlby studied 88 children from his child clinic, 44 of which were referred for stealing
Bowlby diagnosed 16 of 44 thieves as 'affectionless psychopaths'
86% of affectionless psychopaths experienced early separation from their mother
Evaluate Bowlby's 44 Thieves study
Spitz found many institutionalised children in South America suffered anaclitic depression, which Bowlby attributed to disruption of attachment with their mother
Real world applications; incentivised parents to be with their children, and hospitals have allowed parents to visit their children
Rutter argues privation was the reason behind delinquency as some children experienced changes in caregiver and were unable to form a bond
All children came from Bowlby's clinic and Bowlby came up with the term affectionless psychopaths, which may lead to potential researcher bias
Define prototype and revisionist perspectives
Prototype: Internal working model is consistent and can be used to predict future relationships in childhood Revisionist: Internal working model revises throughout life due to life experiences
Outline research into prototype and revisionist perspectives
Belsky found securely attached children were more likely to form close relationships
Smith found insecure-avoidant children were more likely to be bullied and insecure-resistant children were more likely to become bullies
Outline Hazan and Shaver's study procedure
Questionnaire in Rocky Mountain News, a newspaper in a small American town with 620 participants (205 men, 415 women) and asked them 3 types of questions
Current or most important relationship
Judgement of attitudes toward love
Invesitgation of attachment history
Outline Hazan and Shaver's study results
Positive correlation found between attachment type and love experiences (Securely attached people had a more positive outlook on love)
Securely attached people had longer relationships
Avoidant people were more jealous and feared intimacy
Resistant people were the most prone to loneliness
Outline Hazan and Shaver's study findings
Suggests correlation between early attachment styles and future relationships, supporting the prototype perspective.
Later research showed 22% of adults changed their attachment type over the last year, which supports the revisionist perspective
Evaluate Hazan and Shaver's study
Biological Determism; Prototype Perspective claims that a poor internal working model will lead to poor relationships
Zimmerman found that life events such as counselling and parenthood changed insecure attachment types to secure attachment
Fraley found low correlations between attachment type in childhood and later relationships
How does early attachment influence parenting?
Harlow found motherless monkeys went on to be bad mothers
Bailey found women raised in institutions had more difficulty parenting and sent their children to care more than home-raised women
Define institutionalisation
The effect that living in an institutional setting, such as an orphanage, may have on child development
Define privation
Inability of a child to form an attachment due to displacement
Outline Rutter's study procedure
Assessed 111 Romanian institutionalised children adopted in the UK and Canada on their abilities
Average IQ for Romanian orphans was 63; for those older than 6 months, it was 45
51% of Romanian orphans were in the bottom 3% of weight and shorter than average
Poor emotional development for all orphans
Outline Rutter's study findings
Average IQ increased to 110; those adopted after 6 months had an IQ increased to 90
By 10, physical differences ceased
O'Connor found late adoptees showed slower signs of development than earlier adoptees
Kumsta identified 4 patterns due to deprivation available in children: quasi autism, inattention, disinhibited attachment, and cognitive impairment
Evaluate Rutter's study
Longitudinal nature allows experimenter to see change; without such studies, we may believe effects of institutionalisation are irreversible due to lack of immediate evidence
Natural experiment leads to extraneous variables, as different orphans were treated differently
Real life applications; shows that institutionalisation effects can be reversed, and has led to reform in institutions, such as key workers and caretakers