Psychology Exam Prep

Craik & Lockhart (1972) Levels of Processing (LoP): Core Idea

• Proposed that memory is not based on separate stores (e.g., STM/LTM) but on the depth of processing during encoding.

• Deeper, more meaningful processing = stronger, longer-lasting memory traces.

Craik & Lockhart (1972) Levels of Processing (LoP): LoP

• Shallow Processing

• Deep Processing

Craik & Lockhart (1972) Levels of Processing (LoP): Shallow Processing

Shallow processing – little attention to meaning, focuses on physical/sensory features.

• Structural processing: what the word looks like (e.g., uppercase/lowercase).

• Phonemic processing: what the word sounds like (e.g., does it rhyme?).

Craik & Lockhart (1972) Levels of Processing (LoP): Deep Processing

Deep processing – requires semantic analysis.

• Semantic processing: focuses on meaning, e.g., fitting a word into a sentence or relating it to personal experience.

Craik & Tulving (1975) Experiment: Aim

To test whether semantic processing leads to better long-term memory than shallow processing.

Craik & Tulving (1975) Experiment: Method

• Participants: College students.

• Procedure: Presented with words one at a time, asked one of three types of questions:

  • Structural (shallow): Is the word in capital letters?

  • Phonemic (intermediate): Does the word rhyme with ___?

  • Semantic (deep): Does the word fit into this sentence?

• Later: given a recognition test (unexpected) to see which words they remembered.

Craik & Tulving (1975) Experiment: Variables (IV/DV)

• Independent Variable (IV): Type of processing (structural, phonemic, semantic).

• Dependent Variable (DV): Memory performance (number of words correctly recognized in retention test).

Craik & Tulving (1975) Experiment: Response Latency

• Time taken to answer the encoding questions was recorded.

• Finding: Semantic questions took longer → deeper processing requires more cognitive effort.

Craik & Tulving (1975) Experiment: Retention Test

• Method: Surprise recognition test with a larger list of words (some seen before, some new). Participants asked to identify previously presented words.

• Findings:

  • Words processed semantically = highest recall.

  • Words processed phonemically = moderate recall.

  • Words processed structurally = lowest recall.

Craik & Tulving (1975) Experiment: Ethics/Considerations

• Informed consent: Students were volunteers, informed of procedure.

• Deception: Minimal (surprise test, but no harm).

• Protection from harm: Low-risk task.

• Right to withdraw: Presumably given.

• Confidentiality: Likely upheld.

• Consideration: Surprise test could raise mild stress, but no lasting harm.

Craik & Tulving (1975) Experiment: Processing/Encoding

• Structural (shallow): Weak encoding → weaker memory trace.

• Phonemic (intermediate): Moderate encoding → moderate memory trace.

• Semantic (deep): Strong encoding → durable memory trace.

• Conclusion: Semantic processing leads to deeper encoding → superior long-term retention.

Extraneous Variable in Psychological research

Any variable other than the independent variable (IV) that could potentially influence the dependent variable (DV).

Controlled Variable in Psychological research

Extraneous variables that the researcher has identified and actively kept constant so they don’t influence the DV.

Confounding Variable in Psychological research

An uncontrolled extraneous variable that systematically varies with the IV, meaning it directly influences the DV in a way that confuses (or “confounds”) the results.

Learning: Storage

Storage

• Definition: Maintaining encoded information in memory over time.

• Stages:

  • Sensory memory (very brief, raw form)

  • Short-term memory (limited capacity & duration, ~7 ± 2 items, ~20 seconds)

  • Long-term memory (potentially unlimited, durable).

Learning: Retrieval

Retrieval

• Definition: Accessing stored information for use.

• Processes: Recall, recognition, and relearning.

• Issues: Retrieval failure often caused by lack of cues.

Learning: Encoding

Encoding

• Definition: The process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory.

• Types:

  • Structural (appearance)

  • Phonemic (sound)

  • Semantic (meaning) → deepest, strongest memory traces.

Learning: Retention

Retention

• Definition: Ability to keep information in memory over time.

• Measurement: Recall, recognition, savings (Ebbinghaus).

Learning: Hippocampus

• Role in memory:

  • Central to consolidating new explicit (declarative) memories (facts & events).

  • Transfers info from STM → LTM.

  • Not the permanent store; acts as a "gateway" to long-term storage (especially in cortex).

• Damage:

  • Anterograde amnesia (can’t form new LTMs).

  • Existing long-term memories often remain intact.

Learning: Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve

• Researcher: Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885).

• Method: Tested himself by memorising nonsense syllables, tracked retention over time.

• Findings:

  • Rapid forgetting occurs soon after learning (within the first hour/day).

  • After initial drop, forgetting plateaus (slows down).

• Implication: Rehearsal and review strengthen retention, preventing steep decline.

Learning: Types of Rehearsal: Maintenance

Maintenance Rehearsal

• Repetition of information over and over (rote learning).

• Keeps information active in STM.

• Strengths: Simple, effective for STM retention.

• Limitations: Shallow processing, doesn’t aid transfer to LTM.

Learning: Types of Rehearsal: Elaborate

Elaborative Rehearsal

• Linking new info to existing knowledge/meaning.

• Involves deeper (semantic) processing.

• Strengths: Promotes LTM storage, creates stronger retrieval cues.

• Limitations: Requires more time, effort, and cognitive resources.

Learning: Punishment

• Definition: Any consequence that decreases likelihood of behaviour repeating.

• Positive punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus. (e.g., scolding a child).

• Negative punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus. (e.g., taking away video game time).

Learning: Reinforcement

• Definition: Any consequence that increases likelihood of behavior repeating.

• Positive reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus after behavior. (e.g., giving a dog a treat for sitting).

• Negative reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus after behavior. (e.g., buckling seatbelt stops annoying alarm).

Learning: Skinner (1984): Operant Conditioning Experiment

Pigeon Experiments

• Method:

  • Trained pigeons using a “Skinner Box” with levers, lights, food dispenser.

  • Pigeons learned behaviours (pecking, turning, pressing lever) through reinforcement schedules.

• Findings:

  • Behavior can be shaped by systematically reinforcing successive approximations.

  • Demonstrated both positive and negative reinforcement.

Learning: Reinforcement Schedules

• Fixed Interval (FI): Reinforcement after a set period of time.

  • Example: Weekly paycheck.

  • Behaviour increases as interval approaches, then drops.

• Variable Interval (VI): Reinforcement after unpredictable time intervals.

  • Example: Checking for messages on phone.

  • Produces steady, consistent response rate.

Learning: Extinction

• Definition: When reinforcement is no longer provided, the conditioned behaviour decreases and eventually stops.

• Example: If a pigeon no longer receives food after pecking, the behaviour will fade.

Learning: Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961) – Bobo Doll Experiment: Aim/Method

Aim

• To investigate whether children learn aggressive behaviour through observational learning (modelling).

Participants & Allocation

• Participants: 72 children (36 boys, 36 girls), ages 3–6.

• Allocation: Randomly assigned to one of three groups:

  • Aggressive model condition (adult acted aggressively toward Bobo doll).

  • Non-aggressive model condition (adult played calmly).

  • Control group (no model).

Learning: Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961) – Bobo Doll Experiment: Behaviours Observed

Two Types of Aggressive Behaviour Observed

1. Physical aggression (hitting, punching, kicking Bobo doll).

2. Verbal aggression (hostile language, aggressive phrases like “hit him”).

Learning: Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961) – Bobo Doll Experiment: Findings

Key Findings

• Children who observed aggressive models were more likely to behave aggressively, both physically and verbally, than those in non-aggressive or control groups.

• Boys showed more physical aggression than girls; girls showed more verbal aggression when model was female.

• Aggression was imitated even without reinforcement → supports social learning theory.

• Demonstrated the power of observational learning, role models, and vicarious reinforcement.

Wellbeing: Maslow (1954) Hierarchy of Needs: Core Idea/Concept

Core Idea

• Human motivation follows a hierarchy of needs, progressing from basic physiological requirements to higher psychological growth.

• Wellbeing occurs when higher needs (growth/self-actualisation) can be pursued after lower needs are satisfied.

Wellbeing: Maslow (1954) Hierarchy of Needs: Strengths and Limitations

Strengths

• Easy to understand, intuitive framework for wellbeing.

• Recognises both physical and psychological needs.

• Influential in education, business, and therapy.

Limitations

• Hierarchical order is not universal (e.g., some people prioritise creativity over safety).

• Based on Western cultural values of individualism.

• Lacks strong empirical support — hard to measure self-actualisation.

Wellbeing: Diener (1984) Subjective Wellbeing: Core Idea/Components

Core Idea

• Wellbeing is subjective — based on how people perceive and evaluate their own lives.

• SWB is about personal experiences of happiness and life satisfaction, not just objective life conditions.

Components

1. Life satisfaction (cognitive evaluation):

   • Overall judgement about life quality.

   • “How satisfied am I with my life as a whole?”

2. Affective balance (emotional evaluation):

   • Ratio of positive affect (joy, love, contentment) to negative affect (anger, sadness, stress).

   • Greater positive affect than negative affect = higher wellbeing.

Wellbeing: Diener (1984) Subjective Wellbeing: Strengths and Limitations

Strengths

• Focuses on subjective experience, acknowledging individual differences.

• Can be measured with surveys and questionnaires → practical in research.

• Recognises emotional + cognitive dimensions.

Limitations

• Self-reports may be biased (social desirability, cultural differences).

• Ignores broader factors like purpose, autonomy, or meaning.

• Short-term moods can influence reported wellbeing.

Wellbeing: Ryff (1989) Psychological Wellbeing Model: Core Idea

Core Idea

• Wellbeing is more than happiness or satisfaction; it involves psychological functioning and personal growth.

• Developed as a more comprehensive model than SWB.

Wellbeing: Ryff (1989) Psychological Wellbeing Model: 6 Factors

Six Factors of Psychological Wellbeing

1. Autonomy

   • Independence, self-regulation, resisting social pressures.

   • High autonomy = acting according to one’s values.

2. Environmental mastery

   • Ability to manage life and surrounding environment effectively.

   • High mastery = sense of control, competence.

3. Personal growth

   • Ongoing development, openness to new experiences, self-improvement.

   • High growth = viewing life as continuous learning.

4. Positive relations with others

   • Warm, trusting, meaningful interpersonal connections.

   • High relations = empathy, intimacy, strong social support.

5. Purpose in life

   • Sense of meaning, direction, and intentionality.

   • High purpose = clear goals and beliefs guiding life.

6. Self-acceptance

   • Positive attitude toward oneself, including past life and personal qualities.

   • High acceptance = realistic self-view and self-respect.

Wellbeing: Ryff (1989) Psychological Wellbeing Model: Strengths and Limitations

Strengths

• Comprehensive, goes beyond happiness to include meaning, growth, relationships.

• Empirically tested and supported in multiple cultures.

Limitations

• Can be difficult to measure accurately (complex, subjective constructs).

• Some overlap between factors (e.g., autonomy vs environmental mastery).

• Still influenced by Western ideas of independence.

Reliability

• Definition: The consistency of a measurement or test over time.

• Types:

  • Test-retest reliability: Stability of results when repeated over time.

  • Inter-rater reliability: Consistency across different observers/raters.

  • Internal consistency: Whether items in a test measure the same construct.

• High reliability = results are reproducible and not due to chance/error.

• Low reliability = results vary unpredictably.

• Example: If a memory test gives similar scores when administered twice to the same person, it has high test-retest reliability.

Validity

• Definition: The extent to which a test or study measures what it claims to measure.

• Types:

  • Internal validity: Whether changes in DV are due to IV, not confounding variables.

  • External validity: Whether results can be generalised to other settings, people, times.

  • Construct validity: Whether the test accurately measures the psychological concept.

  • Face validity: Whether it appears, on the surface, to measure the intended concept.

• High validity = findings are accurate and meaningful.

• Low validity = results may be misleading or irrelevant.

• Example: A depression scale that actually measures anxiety has low construct validity.

CTE: Causes

• Progressive, degenerative brain disease linked to repeated head injuries and concussions, especially in contact sports (e.g., football, boxing, rugby).

• Accumulation of abnormal tau protein in brain tissue, leading to neural degeneration.

CTE: Symptoms

• Cognitive: memory loss, impaired judgement, confusion, dementia.

• Mood/Emotional: depression, aggression, impulsivity, emotional instability.

• Behavioural: increased risk-taking, violent outbursts.

• Later stages: speech and motor impairments, Parkinson-like symptoms.

• Onset: Symptoms may appear years/decades after repeated trauma.

Frequency Table

• Definition: Organises raw data into categories and shows the frequency (count) of each value.

• Purpose: Makes large data sets easier to read and interpret.

• Example:

Score	Frequency
1	3
2	5
3	7
4	2

Summary Table

• Definition: Condensed table that presents key descriptive statistics (e.g., mean, median, mode, range, standard deviation).

• Purpose: Provides an overview of dataset trends.

• Example:

Measure	Value
Mean	2.9
Median	3
Mode	3
Range	3

Stress: Holmes and Rahe (1967): Model

Model of Stress

• Concept: Stress is caused by life changes, requiring adaptation.

• Life events, both positive and negative, can accumulate and contribute to psychological or physical illness.

• Stress level depends on the magnitude and frequency of life changes.

Stress: Holmes and Rahe (1967): SRRS

SRRS (Social Readjustment Rating Scale)

• Definition: A tool to quantify stress load based on life events.

• Procedure:

  • Participants indicate which of 43 life events they experienced in the past year.

  • Each event assigned a Life Change Unit (LCU) score reflecting its relative stress impact.

• Scoring:

  • <150 LCU: Low risk of stress-related illness.

  • 150–299 LCU: Moderate risk.

  • 300+ LCU: High risk of stress-related illness.

• Strengths: Provides measurable, standardised way to assess stress.

• Limitations:

  • Subjective experience not accounted for.

  • Some events may be interpreted differently by individuals.

Stress: Coping Strategies: Adaptive vs Maladaptive

• Adaptive coping: Strategies that reduce stress in healthy ways.

  • Examples: exercising, problem-solving, seeking support.

  • Impact: Improves psychological and physical health.

• Maladaptive coping: Strategies that reduce stress in the short-term but harm long-term health.

  • Examples: excessive drinking, avoidance, overeating.

  • Impact: Can increase stress, health problems, and social issues.

Stress: Coping Strategies: Problem vs Emotion focused

• Problem-focused coping:

  • Tackles the source of stress directly.

  • Examples: creating a study plan, seeking solutions to conflict.

  • Effective when stressor is controllable.

• Emotion-focused coping:

  • Manages emotional response rather than the stressor itself.

  • Examples: meditation, journaling, venting.

  • Useful when stressor is uncontrollable.

Stress: Selye (1936/83): GAS Stages

GAS (General Adaptation Syndrome)

• Concept: Stress triggers a predictable physiological response regardless of stressor type.

Stages

1. Alarm reaction:

   • Immediate reaction to stressor.

   • “Fight or flight” activated (adrenaline, cortisol released).

2. Resistance stage:

   • Body attempts to cope with ongoing stress.

   • Physiological arousal stabilises, energy used to adapt.

3. Exhaustion stage:

   • Body resources depleted.

   • Increased vulnerability to illness, fatigue, burnout, or death.

Stress: Selye (1936/83): Types of Stress

Types of Stress (Selye, 1983)

• Eustress: Positive stress that motivates or improves performance.

  • Examples: preparing for a competition, starting a new job.

• Distress: Negative stress causing anxiety, decreased performance, or health issues.

  • Examples: bereavement, financial problems.

Stress: Types of Stressors:

• Acute stressors: Short-term, intense events (e.g., car accident, exam).

• Chronic stressors: Ongoing stressors over a long period (e.g., caregiving, chronic illness).

• Daily hassles: Minor everyday irritations (e.g., traffic, arguments).

• Major life events: Significant life changes (e.g., moving house, divorce).

• Catastrophes: Large-scale, unexpected events (e.g., natural disasters, war).

Sleep: Definition

• Sleep: A naturally recurring state of rest characterised by reduced consciousness, decreased sensory activity, and inhibited voluntary muscle activity.

• Essential for physical restoration, cognitive functioning, and emotional regulation.

Sleep: Deprivation

• Definition: Occurs when an individual does not get enough sleep to meet physiological and cognitive needs.

• Types:

  1. Partial sleep deprivation: Sleeping less than the required amount (e.g., 4–6 hours instead of 7–9 hours).

  2. Total sleep deprivation: Going without sleep entirely for an extended period (e.g., >24 hours).

  3. Chronic sleep deprivation: Long-term insufficient sleep over days, weeks, or months.

     • Effects include: impaired memory, reduced attention, slower reaction times, weakened immune system, mood disturbances, and increased risk of physical health problems (e.g., obesity, cardiovascular disease).

Sleep: Stages

• Stage 1 (Light sleep)

  • Transition from wakefulness to sleep.

  • Alpha waves replaced by theta waves.

  • Hypnic jerks, slow eye movement.

• Stage 2

  • Light sleep, body temperature drops, heart rate slows.

  • Sleep spindles and K-complexes appear in EEG.

• Stage 3 (Slow-wave sleep / Deep sleep)

  • Delta waves dominate.

  • Body repairs tissue, strengthens immune system, and consolidates declarative memory.

  • Hard to wake; if awakened, person feels disoriented.

Sleep: REM Sleep

REM Sleep (Rapid Eye Movement, 20–25% of night)

• Brain activity similar to wakefulness (beta waves).

• Most dreaming occurs.

• Plays key role in memory consolidation (procedural and emotional memories) and emotional regulation.

• Body experiences muscle atonia (paralysis) to prevent acting out dreams.

Sleep: Cycle

• Adults typically cycle through NREM → REM stages 4–6 times per night.

• Duration of REM increases with each cycle.

Sleep: He. Et al.

• Aim: Investigate the impact of sleep deprivation on cognitive/physical performance.

• Method: Could include sleep manipulation (partial or total deprivation) and measurement of cognitive tasks or EEG.

Findings

• Sleep deprivation impairs attention, working memory, and decision-making.

• Chronic deprivation linked to increased stress hormones, mood disturbances, and reduced neurocognitive performance.

• REM sleep deprivation specifically affects emotional regulation and memory consolidation.

• Confirms that adequate sleep is essential for optimal cognitive and physical functioning.

Data Collection Methods

• Quantitative data → numerical, measurable (e.g., test scores, surveys with scales).

• Qualitative data → descriptive, non-numerical (e.g., interviews, focus groups, case studies).

• Focus groups fall under qualitative methods, though they may produce some quantifiable themes (mixed).

Focus Groups

• Definition: A structured group interview where 6–12 participants discuss a topic guided by a trained facilitator.

• Used to explore opinions, attitudes, beliefs, and experiences.

• Interactive discussion: Participants build on each other’s responses.

• Moderator/facilitator: Ensures discussion stays relevant, unbiased, and inclusive.

• Open-ended questions: Allow detailed exploration of ideas.

• Recording/transcription: Data usually captured via audio/video for later thematic analysis.