Organizations of Body structures

Divisions of the body

head, neck, trunk, limbs

Trunk

thorax, abdomen, pelvis

Divisions of the body

head, neck, trunk, limbs

Trunk

thorax, abdomen, pelvis

Limbs or members

Superior or upper limb or member and Inferior or lower limb or member

Ventral Cavity

thoracic cavity and abdominopelvic cavity

Dorsal Cavity

cranial cavity and spinal cavity

Axilla

Is the armpit, the space between the medial surface of the upper arm and the adjacent lateral chest wall

Groin

Is the area of the oblique crease on the front of the body where the lower limb joins the trunk in front of the hip

Loin

Lateral side of the abdomen between the lowest rib and the upper margin of the ilium

Lumbar Region

Is one of the nine regions into which the abdomen is divided. It sometimes refers to the posterior abdominal wall adjacent to the lumbar vertebrae

Buttock

is the prominent area of the rump on either side lying lateral to and behind the hip

Perineum

Is the space between the upper medial surfaces of the thighs, and extending from the anus behind to the pubic arch in front. It becomes visible when the thighs are separated

Cells

The unit of structure of function of the body

Tissues

Group of similar cells

Organs

Groups of tissues organized into a unit and concerned with some specific function

Systems

Groups of tissues and organs arranged to perform some function

Protoplasm

Is the name used to indicate living matter

DNA or Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid

• Consists of complex molecules located in the chromosomes of the nuclei of body cells
• Each contain thousands of compounds with a nitrogen base, a sugar with 5 carbon atoms, deoxyribose, and a phosphate
• Responsible for multiple genes, and the transmission of hereditary traits

RNA or Ribose Nucleic Acid

• A compound molecule located in the nucleoli of cell nuclei, or in the cytoplasm
• It contains nitrogen, ribose, a sugar with 5 carbon atoms and a phosphate

1 micron

1/1000 mm, (1/25000 of an inch)

1 millimicron

1/1000 micron, (1/250,000,00 of an inch)

1 angstrom

1/10 millimicron, (1/250,000,000 of an inch)

Cell Membrane, Nucleus, and Cytoplasm

Cells consists of (3):

Cell Membrane

Also called plasma membrane \n A very thin covering that surrounds each cell \n It forms a wall to contain the cell contents but it is permeable to water and many molecules, allowing them to pass in or out of the cell \n Semi-permeable membrane

Nucleus

(L) - Little Nut \n Is a centrally-placed rounded part of the cell that is separated from the remainder of the cell by nuclear membrane \n Controls cellular activity and contains chromosomes and a small rounded granule called nucleolus

Chromosomes

o Are long threadlike filaments contained within the nucleus \n o Contains proteins and DNA molecules that carry genes

Nucleolus

Rounded body within the nucleus. It contains RNA molecules and proteins

The Cytoplasm

Is part of a cell that lies outside of the nucleus

Mitochondria

Sausage shaped bodies, the power plants, with enzymes producing chemical reactions that produce energy

Endoplasmic Reticula

Minute canals that build up proteins (Synthesize Proteins)

Golgi Bodies

• Minute vesicles, small sacs that concentrate or condense intracellular materials
• Packing center of the cell

Lysosomes

• Minute droplets that digest proteins, etc.
• Suicide bags

Centrosomes

Small spherical bodies containing two cylinders which take part in cell division

Intracellular fluid

The fluid within the cytoplasm

The Cell Body

Consists of the nucleus and surrounding cytoplasm

Cell Processes

• Are projections that extend out from the cell body in some types of cells, such as nerve and bone cells
• Nerve cells are called Neurons which contains dendrites (transmit signals to the cell body) and Axon (transmit signals away from cell body)

Somatic cells and genetic cells or reproductive cells

2 types of cells found in the body

Somatic cells

Term used to include all the cells of the body except the genetic (reproductive) cells

Genetic cells or reproductive cells

Include those cells that produce an embryo, the ovum, or egg in the female, and the spermatozoon, or sperm in the male

Epithelial Tissue or Epithelium, Connective Tissue, Muscular Tissue, Nervous Tissue

Tissues

Intracellular Substance

is the material that lies between adjacent cell in any tissue

Epithelial Tissue - Epithelium

• A thin sheet of tissue composed of cells cemented together to form a covering or lining membrane, such as skin, covering of a lung, or lining of a blood vessel or the intestine, etc.
• Contains nerve endings (receptors) but no blood vessels (ex. Skin)
• It gives protection, manufactures secretions, and allows absorption and excretion

Pavement Epithelium

Single Layer of Flat Cobblestone or tile-like cells

Cuboidal Epithelium

A layer of cube-shaped cells cemented together

Columnar Epithelium

A layer of cylindrical cells joined together

Polyhedral Epithelium

Many-sided cells are cemented together

Goblet Cells

Shaped like wine goblets, are found in the columnar epithelium. They secrete mucus, a clear sticky fluid. They are found in mucous membranes of the digestive tract because they help in the lubrication of the food as it passes the gastrointestinal tract

Simple Epithelium

• Consist of a single layer of cells cemented together to form a continuous sheet
• Linings of blood vessels and the intestine, the covering of the heart, lungs, etc

Stratified epithelium

o Consists of several layers of cells cemented together to form a membrane \n o Mouth, esophagus, vagina, skin

Endothelium

A type of simple epithelium with a single layer of cells forming the lining of blood vessels

Mesothelium

A type of simple single-layered epithelium that lines the body cavities, the pleura, pericardium, and peritoneum

Mucous Membrane

A type of simple or stratified epithelium that contains goblet cells and secretes mucus

Serous membrane

A type of simple epithelium that secretes a thin watery colorless fluid

Synovial Membrane

Is a type of epithelium that lines joint cavities, bursae, and the sheaths of tendons. It secretes an oily substance that lubricates adjacent surfaces

Connective Tissues

• Are supporting and binding tissues of the body
• Functions to support, connect, or bind other important tissues and to fill in spaces within and about organs

Loose (Areolar) Connective Tissue

• Consist of semiliquid or jellylike matrix surrounding well separated cells
• Network of loosely arranged fibers
• Wavy white bundles of fibers containing collagen that yield gelatin with boiling, and yellow elastic fibers that are stretchable

Adipose (Fatty) Tissue

• Modified connective tissue
• The nucleus of each cell is pushed to one side by fat that is deposited in the cytoplasm
• The fat cell resembles a signet ring

Fibrous Tissue

• Type of connective tissue in which the matrix consists of bundles of collagen fibers that either lie parallel to each other or form a crisscross of fibers when in sheets
• Form strong cords or sheets of tissue
• Tendons (connects muscle to bone), ligaments (connects bone to bone), and aponeuroses (similar to tendon)

Elastic Connective Tissue

• Largely composed of elastic fibers that are contractile and stretchable
• Found in structures that must expand and contract
• Walls of large blood vessels, lungs, membranes of lining the hollow organs
• Peristalsis

Reticular Tissue

• Composed of a fine network (reticulum) of fibers
• Lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, and bone marrow

Cartilage or Gristle

Oval shaped nucleated cells surrounded by a matrix that cements the cells into a firm but flexible structure

Hyaline Cartilage

• Clear Matrix
• Costal Cartilages, nasal, and laryngeal cartilages, and the ringlike cartilage of the trachea and bronchi

Fibrocartilage

• White collagen fibers
• Articular discs at some joints such as intervertebral discs, semilunar cartilages at the knee, wrist, symphysis pubis, TMJ, acromioclavicular and sternoclavicular joints

Elastic cartilage

• Elastic fibers
• Epiglottis, cartilages of the external ear, auditory canals

Bone or Osseous Tissue

• Modified connective tissue
• Nucleated cells with many processes extending out from the cell bodies
• The spaces about the processes and between cells are impregnated with calcium phosphate forming a rigid matrix

Muscular Tissue: Muscle Tissue

Elongated, cylindrical or spindle-shaped cells cemented together to form bundles of sheets

Muscle cells are also called muscle fibers

Minute Fibrils (Little Fibers) or myofibrils extend from one end of a muscle fiber to the other in the cytoplasm

skeletal muscle, visceral muscle, cardiac muscle or myocardium

3 types of Muscle Tissues

Skeletal Muscle

Voluntary, Striated Muscle \n Attached to bones across a joint \n Has sensory and motor nerves

Visceral Muscle

Involuntary, Non-striated \n Smooth Muscles \n Stomach, Intestine, gallbladder, blood vessels \n Controlled by automatic nervous system \n \n Two layers of visceral muscle in the covering of a hollow organ: \n o Inner circular layer \n o Outer Longitudinal layer

Cardiac Muscle or Myocardium

Involuntary, Striated

Fibers are cylindrical but branched

Neurons

Central nucleus and two sets of processes, an axon and dendrites

Axon

Is a single slender process extending out from the cell body, it may be 2 or 3 ft in length. It conducts impulses away from the cell body

Dendrites

Carry impulses toward the cell body

Sensory Neurons

o Convey sensory impulses from skin or other structure to the spinal cord \n o Receptors are minute structures at the distal end of dendrites that pick up sensory impulses \n o Receives signals

Motor Neurons

o Convey impulses from the brain and spinal cord out to muscles or secreting glands

o Effectors are minute plates or branching fibrils at the distal ends of axons of motor neurons

o Acts on the signals

Neuroglia

Are the supporting cells of the nervous system and are placed among and around neurons

Organ

Groups of tissues organized into units concerned with some specific bodily function. Lungs, heart, kidney, spleen, liver, brain etc.

System

Group of tissues and organs arranged to perform some function.

The systems

o Skeletal or osseous system \n o Skin, cutis, or integumentary system \n o Muscular system \n o Blood and circulatory system o Respiratory system \n o Digestive system \n o Urinary system \n o Reproductive system \n o Endocrine system \n o Nervous system

Filtration

a process by which water, with its dissolved smaller molecules, passes through cell or vessel walls in the same concentration as in the original solution.

Diffusion

Is the movement of molecules from an area of greater concentration to one of lesser concentration.

Osmosis

• Is the passage of water through a semipermeable membrane towards the side with the greater concentration of the dissolved substance.
• Is a term used to designate the maintenance within certain normal limits of the percentage concentration of the various component of blood, body cells, intercellular spaces, etc.

weight(mass)

Density of any substance is the ___(_) per unit volume.

Density

• Varies considerably and depends upon the anatomical structure such as:
  o The composition of the cells of the organs
  o Whether the cells are closely packed together or are widely separated.
• The thickness of the walls of hollow organs.
• Whether hollow organs are empty or are filled with are other gas, or some liquid or solid.

the matrix

The composition of the material filling in the spaces between cells

Media or Medium

A medium is an agent used to render hollow organs, often with thin walls, visible.

Mitosis

Cell division by spindle formation, the duplication of chromosomes, separation of daughter chromatids, (chromosomes). Division of cytoplasm, formation of 2 identical daughter cells.

Miosis

A cell division in genetic or reproductive cells, ova or eggs, and spermatozoa or sperms.

(G) meiosis

a reduction, a lessening

Interphase

or resting stage is the between stage before active cell division has begun.

Prophase

• Preliminary stage includes all the initial steps that occur in preparation for the next stage or metaphase.
• The 46vchromosomes become condensed, rodlike and shortened.
• Duplication - chromosomes become doubles and 46pairs of chromatids, (92(, each one of pair identical to its mate, each gene is duplicated.
• Paired chromatids separate except at one point near the center - the centromere
• The centromere divides into centrosomes, one of which migrates to each pole (or end) of the cell body; (centrosomes contain 2 centrioles);
• A spindle of fibers form between the newly formed centrosomes.
• Aster formation - other fibers radiate out from each centrosome in all directions (aster = a star).
• The nuclear membrane disappears
• The nucleolus also disappear

Aster formation

other fibers radiate out from each centrosome in all directions

Metaphase

o Equatorial grouping; the chromatids line up at the equator of the spindle

o The paired chromatids become arranged at the equator of the spindle, one pair attached to a fiber of the spindle.

Anaphase

• or separation
• The paired chromatids separate from each other.
• One chromatid of each pair migrates along its fiber to a centrosome at each pole.
• The 46 chromatids become chromosomes or fine filaments grouped at the centrosome.

Telophase

Completion of cell division

• The 46 chromosomes, threadlike filaments, form a new nucleus close to the centrosome.
• The spindle and aster disappear.
• A nuclear membrane forms around the 46 chromosomes at each end of the dividing cell.
• The nucleolus reforms.
• The cytoplasm divides, the cell membrane now becomes constricted at the equator, and pinches off forming two separate daughter cells with nuclei.
• Each daughter cell is a duplication of each parent cell with 46 chromosomes and its genes.

Chromosome

are fine filaments, 46 in each nucleus in human somatic cells, contain DNA molecules all having many genes chromosome, participate in cell division, becoming duplicated, form chromosomes of daughter cells.

Centromere

Point of contact of paired daughter chromatids during cell division.

Maturation

• Process in which the parent cell is reduced into one- half of the number of chromosomes
• Oogenesis and spermatogenesis.

Genes

Genes are now considered to be fractions of DNA molecules of chromosomes, in many different combinations.

Congenital Anomaly

A mutation \n A variation in structure of a part of the body from usual form, and is present a birth

Physiochemical Processes in Cells and Tissues

Cell membranes and nuclear membranes of body cells have minute pores and semipermeable.