Organizations of Body structures

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Divisions of the body
head, neck, trunk, limbs
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Trunk
thorax, abdomen, pelvis
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Limbs or members
Superior or upper limb or member and Inferior or lower limb or member
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Ventral Cavity
thoracic cavity and abdominopelvic cavity
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Dorsal Cavity
cranial cavity and spinal cavity
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Axilla
Is the armpit, the space between the medial surface of the upper arm and the adjacent lateral chest wall
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Groin
Is the area of the oblique crease on the front of the body where the lower limb joins the trunk in front of the hip
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Loin
Lateral side of the abdomen between the lowest rib and the upper margin of the ilium
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Lumbar Region
Is one of the nine regions into which the abdomen is divided. It sometimes refers to the posterior abdominal wall adjacent to the lumbar vertebrae
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Buttock
is the prominent area of the rump on either side lying lateral to and behind the hip
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Perineum
Is the space between the upper medial surfaces of the thighs, and extending from the anus behind to the pubic arch in front. It becomes visible when the thighs are separated
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Cells
The unit of structure of function of the body
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Tissues
Group of similar cells
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Organs
Groups of tissues organized into a unit and concerned with some specific function
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Systems
Groups of tissues and organs arranged to perform some function
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Protoplasm
Is the name used to indicate living matter
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DNA or Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid
* Consists of complex molecules located in the chromosomes of the nuclei of body cells
* Each contain thousands of compounds with a nitrogen base, a sugar with 5 carbon atoms, deoxyribose, and a phosphate
* Responsible for multiple genes, and the transmission of hereditary traits
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RNA or Ribose Nucleic Acid
* A compound molecule located in the nucleoli of cell nuclei, or in the cytoplasm
* It contains nitrogen, ribose, a sugar with 5 carbon atoms and a phosphate
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1 micron
1/1000 mm, (1/25000 of an inch)
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1 millimicron
1/1000 micron, (1/250,000,00 of an inch)
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1 angstrom
1/10 millimicron, (1/250,000,000 of an inch)
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Cell Membrane, Nucleus, and Cytoplasm
Cells consists of (3):
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Cell Membrane
Also called plasma membrane \n A very thin covering that surrounds each cell \n It forms a wall to contain the cell contents but it is permeable to water and many molecules, allowing them to pass in or out of the cell \n Semi-permeable membrane
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Nucleus
(L) - Little Nut \n Is a centrally-placed rounded part of the cell that is separated from the remainder of the cell by nuclear membrane \n Controls cellular activity and contains chromosomes and a small rounded granule called nucleolus
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Chromosomes
o Are long threadlike filaments contained within the nucleus \n o Contains proteins and DNA molecules that carry genes
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Nucleolus
Rounded body within the nucleus. It contains RNA molecules and proteins
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The Cytoplasm
Is part of a cell that lies outside of the nucleus
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Mitochondria
Sausage shaped bodies, the power plants, with enzymes producing chemical reactions that produce energy
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Endoplasmic Reticula
Minute canals that build up proteins (Synthesize Proteins)
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Golgi Bodies
* Minute vesicles, small sacs that concentrate or condense intracellular materials
* Packing center of the cell
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Lysosomes
* Minute droplets that digest proteins, etc.
* Suicide bags
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Centrosomes
Small spherical bodies containing two cylinders which take part in cell division
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Intracellular fluid
The fluid within the cytoplasm
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The Cell Body
Consists of the nucleus and surrounding cytoplasm
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Cell Processes
* Are projections that extend out from the cell body in some types of cells, such as nerve and bone cells
* Nerve cells are called Neurons which contains dendrites (transmit signals to the cell body) and Axon (transmit signals away from cell body)
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Somatic cells and genetic cells or reproductive cells
2 types of cells found in the body
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Somatic cells
Term used to include all the cells of the body except the genetic (reproductive) cells
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Genetic cells or reproductive cells
Include those cells that produce an embryo, the ovum, or egg in the female, and the spermatozoon, or sperm in the male
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Epithelial Tissue or Epithelium, Connective Tissue, Muscular Tissue, Nervous Tissue
Tissues
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Intracellular Substance
is the material that lies between adjacent cell in any tissue
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Epithelial Tissue - Epithelium
* A thin sheet of tissue composed of cells cemented together to form a covering or lining membrane, such as skin, covering of a lung, or lining of a blood vessel or the intestine, etc.
* Contains nerve endings (receptors) but no blood vessels (ex. Skin)
* It gives protection, manufactures secretions, and allows absorption and excretion
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Pavement Epithelium
Single Layer of Flat Cobblestone or tile-like cells
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Cuboidal Epithelium
A layer of cube-shaped cells cemented together
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Columnar Epithelium
A layer of cylindrical cells joined together
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Polyhedral Epithelium
Many-sided cells are cemented together
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Goblet Cells
Shaped like wine goblets, are found in the columnar epithelium. They secrete mucus, a clear sticky fluid. They are found in mucous membranes of the digestive tract because they help in the lubrication of the food as it passes the gastrointestinal tract
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Simple Epithelium
* Consist of a single layer of cells cemented together to form a continuous sheet
* Linings of blood vessels and the intestine, the covering of the heart, lungs, etc
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Stratified epithelium
o Consists of several layers of cells cemented together to form a membrane \n o Mouth, esophagus, vagina, skin
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Endothelium
A type of simple epithelium with a single layer of cells forming the lining of blood vessels
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Mesothelium
A type of simple single-layered epithelium that lines the body cavities, the pleura, pericardium, and peritoneum
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Mucous Membrane
A type of simple or stratified epithelium that contains goblet cells and secretes mucus
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Serous membrane
A type of simple epithelium that secretes a thin watery colorless fluid
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Synovial Membrane
Is a type of epithelium that lines joint cavities, bursae, and the sheaths of tendons. It secretes an oily substance that lubricates adjacent surfaces
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Connective Tissues
* Are supporting and binding tissues of the body
* Functions to support, connect, or bind other important tissues and to fill in spaces within and about organs
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Loose (Areolar) Connective Tissue
* Consist of semiliquid or jellylike matrix surrounding well separated cells
* Network of loosely arranged fibers
* Wavy white bundles of fibers containing collagen that yield gelatin with boiling, and yellow elastic fibers that are stretchable
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Adipose (Fatty) Tissue
* Modified connective tissue
* The nucleus of each cell is pushed to one side by fat that is deposited in the cytoplasm
* The fat cell resembles a signet ring
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Fibrous Tissue
* Type of connective tissue in which the matrix consists of bundles of collagen fibers that either lie parallel to each other or form a crisscross of fibers when in sheets
* Form strong cords or sheets of tissue
* Tendons (connects muscle to bone), ligaments (connects bone to bone), and aponeuroses (similar to tendon)
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Elastic Connective Tissue
* Largely composed of elastic fibers that are contractile and stretchable
* Found in structures that must expand and contract
* Walls of large blood vessels, lungs, membranes of lining the hollow organs
* Peristalsis
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Reticular Tissue
* Composed of a fine network (reticulum) of fibers
* Lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, and bone marrow
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Cartilage or Gristle
Oval shaped nucleated cells surrounded by a matrix that cements the cells into a firm but flexible structure
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Hyaline Cartilage
* Clear Matrix
* Costal Cartilages, nasal, and laryngeal cartilages, and the ringlike cartilage of the trachea and bronchi
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Fibrocartilage
* White collagen fibers
* Articular discs at some joints such as intervertebral discs, semilunar cartilages at the knee, wrist, symphysis pubis, TMJ, acromioclavicular and sternoclavicular joints
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Elastic cartilage
* Elastic fibers
* Epiglottis, cartilages of the external ear, auditory canals
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Bone or Osseous Tissue
* Modified connective tissue
* Nucleated cells with many processes extending out from the cell bodies
* The spaces about the processes and between cells are impregnated with calcium phosphate forming a rigid matrix
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Muscular Tissue: Muscle Tissue
Elongated, cylindrical or spindle-shaped cells cemented together to form bundles of sheets

Muscle cells are also called muscle fibers

Minute Fibrils (Little Fibers) or myofibrils extend from one end of a muscle fiber to the other in the cytoplasm
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skeletal muscle, visceral muscle, cardiac muscle or myocardium
3 types of Muscle Tissues
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Skeletal Muscle
Voluntary, Striated Muscle \n Attached to bones across a joint \n Has sensory and motor nerves
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Visceral Muscle
Involuntary, Non-striated \n Smooth Muscles \n Stomach, Intestine, gallbladder, blood vessels \n Controlled by automatic nervous system \n \n Two layers of visceral muscle in the covering of a hollow organ: \n o Inner circular layer \n o Outer Longitudinal layer
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Cardiac Muscle or Myocardium
Involuntary, Striated

Fibers are cylindrical but branched
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Neurons
Central nucleus and two sets of processes, an axon and dendrites
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Axon
Is a single slender process extending out from the cell body, it may be 2 or 3 ft in length. It conducts impulses away from the cell body
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Dendrites
Carry impulses toward the cell body
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Sensory Neurons
o Convey sensory impulses from skin or other structure to the spinal cord \n o Receptors are minute structures at the distal end of dendrites that pick up sensory impulses \n o Receives signals
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Motor Neurons
o Convey impulses from the brain and spinal cord out to muscles or secreting glands

o Effectors are minute plates or branching fibrils at the distal ends of axons of motor neurons

o Acts on the signals
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Neuroglia
Are the supporting cells of the nervous system and are placed among and around neurons
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Organ
Groups of tissues organized into units concerned with some specific bodily function. Lungs, heart, kidney, spleen, liver, brain etc.
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System
Group of tissues and organs arranged to perform some function.
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The systems
o Skeletal or osseous system \n o Skin, cutis, or integumentary system \n o Muscular system \n o Blood and circulatory system o Respiratory system \n o Digestive system \n o Urinary system \n o Reproductive system \n o Endocrine system \n o Nervous system
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Filtration
a process by which water, with its dissolved smaller molecules, passes through cell or vessel walls in the same concentration as in the original solution.
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Diffusion
Is the movement of molecules from an area of greater concentration to one of lesser concentration.
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Osmosis
* Is the passage of water through a semipermeable membrane towards the side with the greater concentration of the dissolved substance.
* Is a term used to designate the maintenance within certain normal limits of the percentage concentration of the various component of blood, body cells, intercellular spaces, etc.
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weight(mass)
Density of any substance is the \______(\____) per unit volume.
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Density
* Varies considerably and depends upon the anatomical structure such as:
o The composition of the cells of the organs
o Whether the cells are closely packed together or are widely separated.
* The thickness of the walls of hollow organs.
* Whether hollow organs are empty or are filled with are other gas, or some liquid or solid.
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the matrix
The composition of the material filling in the spaces between cells
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Media or Medium
A medium is an agent used to render hollow organs, often with thin walls, visible.
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Mitosis
Cell division by spindle formation, the duplication of chromosomes, separation of daughter chromatids, (chromosomes). Division of cytoplasm, formation of 2 identical daughter cells.
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Miosis
A cell division in genetic or reproductive cells, ova or eggs, and spermatozoa or sperms.
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(G) meiosis
a reduction, a lessening
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Interphase
or resting stage is the between stage before active cell division has begun.
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Prophase
* Preliminary stage includes all the initial steps that occur in preparation for the next stage or metaphase.
* The 46vchromosomes become condensed, rodlike and shortened.
* Duplication - chromosomes become doubles and 46pairs of chromatids, (92(, each one of pair identical to its mate, each gene is duplicated.
* Paired chromatids separate except at one point near the center - the centromere
* The centromere divides into centrosomes, one of which migrates to each pole (or end) of the cell body; (centrosomes contain 2 centrioles);
* A spindle of fibers form between the newly formed centrosomes.
* Aster formation - other fibers radiate out from each centrosome in all directions (aster = a star).
* The nuclear membrane disappears
* The nucleolus also disappear
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Aster formation
other fibers radiate out from each centrosome in all directions
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Metaphase
o Equatorial grouping; the chromatids line up at the equator of the spindle

o The paired chromatids become arranged at the equator of the spindle, one pair attached to a fiber of the spindle.
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Anaphase
* or separation
* The paired chromatids separate from each other.
* One chromatid of each pair migrates along its fiber to a centrosome at each pole.
* The 46 chromatids become chromosomes or fine filaments grouped at the centrosome.
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Telophase
Completion of cell division

* The 46 chromosomes, threadlike filaments, form a new nucleus close to the centrosome.
* The spindle and aster disappear.
* A nuclear membrane forms around the 46 chromosomes at each end of the dividing cell.
* The nucleolus reforms.
* The cytoplasm divides, the cell membrane now becomes constricted at the equator, and pinches off forming two separate daughter cells with nuclei.
* Each daughter cell is a duplication of each parent cell with 46 chromosomes and its genes.
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Chromosome
are fine filaments, 46 in each nucleus in human somatic cells, contain DNA molecules all having many genes chromosome, participate in cell division, becoming duplicated, form chromosomes of daughter cells.
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Centromere
Point of contact of paired daughter chromatids during cell division.
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Maturation
* Process in which the parent cell is reduced into one- half of the number of chromosomes
* Oogenesis and spermatogenesis.
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Genes
Genes are now considered to be fractions of DNA molecules of chromosomes, in many different combinations.
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Congenital Anomaly
A mutation \n A variation in structure of a part of the body from usual form, and is present a birth
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Physiochemical Processes in Cells and Tissues
Cell membranes and nuclear membranes of body cells have minute pores and semipermeable.