AGGRESSION

what does aggression mean

refers to a range of behaviors that can result in both physical and psychological harm to oneself, other people, or objects in the environment

outline neural influences on aggression: the limbic system

• area of the brain, lying beneath the cortex, that helps to coordinate behaviour that satisfy motivational and emotional urges, such as aggression and fear

• contains amygdala and hippocampus

outline neural influences on aggression: amygdala

• responsible for quickly evaluating the emotional importance of sensory info and promoting an appropriate response 

• if certain areas of the amygdala are stimulated electrically, an animal responds with aggression e.g. snarling 

• kluver and bucy found that the destruction of the amygdala in a monkey who was dominant in a social group caused it to lose its dominant place as no longer responded the same way

outline neural influences on aggression: hippocampus

• involved in the formation of long term memories so allows an animal to compare the conditions of a current threat with similar past experiences and respond in a way that increases chances of survival

• impaired hippocampal function prevents the nervous system from putting things into a relevant and meaningful context so may cause the amygdala to respond inappropriately, resulting in aggressive behaviour

• boccardi et al. found that habitually violent offenders exhibited abnormalities of hippocampal functioning

outline neural influences on aggression: effect of serotonin on the amygdala

• low levels of serotonin remove the inhibitory effect on the amygdala, with the consequence that individuals are less able to control impulsive and aggressive behaviour (‘serotonin deficiency hypothesis’)

• so when the amygdala was stimulated it becomes more active causing the person to act on their impulses and making aggression more likely

outline neural influences on aggression: influence of serotonin

• low levels of serotonin in the brain have associated with an increased susceptibility to impulsive behaviour and aggression as fails to inhibit response to emotional stimuli

• some drugs are though to alter serotonin and increase aggressive behaviour 

  • mann et al. gave 35 healthy participants ‘deplete serotonin’, using a questionnaire to assess hostility and aggression levels, found that males were associated with an increase in hostility and aggression scores

what is testosterone

hormone produced mainly be the testes associated with the development of secondary sex characteristics in males and implicated in aggressive behaviour

outline hormonal influences on aggression: effect of testosterone on the brain

• influence aggression from young adulthood onwards due to its action on brain areas involved in controlling aggression

• sapolsky summarised research evidence in this area by describing how removing the source of testosterone in different specifics typically resulted in much lower levels of aggression

• changes in testosterone levels appear to influence aggressive behaviour by increasing amygdala reactivity during the processing of a social threat

outline hormonal influences on aggression: gender differences in the effect of testosterone

• archer found men are generally more aggressive than women 

• dabbs found men have much higher concentration of testosterone than women

• daly and wilson found that when testosterone concentrations are at their highest (21 to 35) there is an increase in male-on-male aggressive behaviour

what is meant by genetic factors in terms of aggression

likelihood of behaving aggressively is determined by an individual’s genetic makeup that is inherited from their parents

outline the role of genetic factors in aggression: twin studies

• MZ twins share all of their genes whereas DZ twins share only 50% 

• coccaro et al. studied adult twin pairs found nearly 50% if the variance in direct aggressive behaviour could be attributed to genetic factors 

outline the role of genetic factors in aggression: adoption studies

• hutchings and mednick studied 14,000 adoptions, finding that a significant number of adopted boys with criminal convictions had biological parents particularly fathers, with convictions for criminal violence

• providing evidence for genetic effect as suggests that aggression is a trait that can be inherited from parent to offspring 

outline the role of genetic factors in aggression: research from miles and carey

• carried out a meta-analysis of 24 twin and adoption studies, showing the genetic basis of aggression

• found a strong genetic influence could account for as much as 50% of the variance in aggression 

• found age differences important as both genes and environment are influential in aggression in youth but at later ages the influence of environment decreased as influence of genes increased

outline the role of genetic factors in aggression: research from rhee and waldman

• combined the results of 51 twin and adoption studies 

• concluded aggressive anti-social behaviour was largely a product of genetic contributions

what is MAOA

an enzyme that regulates the metabolism of serotonin in the brain and low levels of serotonin are associated with impulsive and aggressive behaviour

outline the role of genetic factors in aggression: research into the role of MAOA

• brunner et al. studied a dutch family, finding that many of its male members behaved in a violent and aggressive manner and a large proportion had been involved in serious crimes of violence 

• men were found to have abnormally low levels of MAOA in their bodies and a defect in this gene was later identified

outline the role of genetic factors in aggression: variants in MAOA

• caspi et al discovered a variant of the gene associated with high levels of MAOA (MAOA-H) and variant associated with low levels (MAOA-L)

• found those with MAOA-L were significantly more likely to grow up to exhibit anti-social behaviour but only if they had been maltreated as children

• mcdermott et al. found that MAOA-L participants displayed higher levels of aggression when provoked compared to MAOA-H

outline the role of genetic factors in aggression: ‘warrior gene’

• MAOA-L is much more frequent in populations with a history of warfare with about ⅔ of people in these populations having this version of the gene

• only ⅓ in western populations have those low-activity version of the gene 

briefly outline the ethological explanation of aggression

• Lorenz stressed the adaptive value of animal behaviours like aggression as it leads to the better use of resources, protection of territories and acquiring reproductive mates

• observe aggression in other animals in their natural habitats to understand human aggression

outline the ethological explanation of aggression: fixed action patterns and innate releasing mechanisms

• Tinbergen argued that innate behaviours fixed action patterns (FAPs) are a repertoire, that all members of the same species have, of stereotyped behaviour that occurs in specific conditions

• when the sign stimulus (specific stimulus) is present it stimulates the sensory recognition circuit

• neural network known as innate releasing mechanism (IRM) receives input from the circuit

• IRM sends a signal to the motor control circuits to activate the FAPs associated with the sign stimulus

who identified the characteristics of FAPs

Lea

outline the ethological explanation of aggression: characteristics of FAPs

• stereotyped - always occurs in the same way

• universal - behaviour is the same in all conspecific (i.e. same species)

• independent of individual experience - behaviour is innate

• ballistic - once triggered, the FAP cannot be changed or stopped

• specific triggers - each FAP has a specific sign stimulus

outline the ethological explanation of aggression: tinbergen’s research on FAPs

• male stickleback fish will produce a fixed sequence of aggressive actions when another male enters its territory

• sign stimulus in this case is not the presence of the other male, but the sight of its distinctive red underbelly acts as a sign stimulus 

• if this is covered up, the intruder is not attacked

who developed the hydraulic model of instinctive behaviour

Lorenz

outline the ethological explanation of aggression: hydraulic model of instinctive behaviour

• each FAP has a reservoir of ‘action-specific energy’ (ASE) that builds up over time placing pressure on IRM

• appropriate sign stimulus causes the IRM to release this energy and the animal then performs the FAP 

• after performing the FAP, the reservoir of ASE is empty and behaviour cannot be repeated until the ASE has built up again

outline the ethological explanation of aggression: ritualistic aggression in animals

• not all aggressive behaviour involves fighting but may be ritualised in the form of threat displays e.g. chest pounding

• important because they help animals to assess their relative strength before deciding to escalate a conflict

• making costly and dangerous physical aggression less likely to occur as opponent may back down

outline the ethological explanation of aggression: ritualistic aggression in humans

• evidence of the use of ritualised aggression in tribal warfare in human cultures 

• gardner and heider described how the dani of new guinea engaged in ritualised patterns of intergroup hostility 

outline the ethological explanation of aggression: wolves v. doves theory

• Lorenz claimed that species who have ‘evolved weapons’ like strong teeth must also have instinctive inhibitions that prevent them using these against members of their own species 

• non-hunting species have no such powerful weapons so have not developed the same inhibitions against hurting their own kind

outline the ethological explanation of aggression: wolves v. doves theory in humans

• Lorenz believed that humans are more like the dove than the world when it comes to dealing with other human beings 

• we don't have powerful natural weapons so no need to develop strong instinctive inhibitions against killing one another 

briefly outline a strength of the ethological explanation of aggression: research support

Tinbergen found that male stickleback fish will produce a fixed sequence of aggressive actions when the sign stimulus of a red spot is present

briefly outline a criticism of the ethological explanation of aggression: challenging evidence for hydraulic model

• Von Holst demonstrated that the aggressive behaviour itself could provide a further stimulus, which, rather than reducing the likelihood of further aggressive behaviour, made it more likely

• too simplistic as fails to acknowledge the potential for aggressive behaviour to escalate 

briefly outline a criticism of the ethological explanation of aggression: generalisations of instinctive view

• Lehrman argued Lorenz underestimated the role of environmental factors in the development of species-typical aggressive behaviour patterns

• Eibl-Eibesfeldt suggested that FAPs, such as aggression, are no longer adaptive in modern times due to the environment in which we exist changing rapidly

• human behaviour is far more varied and less predictable compared to non-humans due to human beings being more cognitively and socially sophisticated than animals (extrapolation issues with animal studies)

briefly outline a criticism of the ethological explanation of aggression: killing members of the same species isn’t that rare

• Goodall found that rival communities slaughtered each other in a systematic fashion, despite appeasement and ritualistic signals being displayed by the victims

• suggests some forms of aggression are not innate or adaptive as instinctive inhibitions are not always present

what is meant by evolution

when a species gradually changes over many successive generations

briefly outline the evolutionary explanation of aggression

Duntley and Buss argued adaptations, including those that function to inflict costs on other humans, make up our human nature and are a product of evolution by natural selection

outline the evolutionary explanation of aggression: adaptive behaviour

• aggression is strategy that would have been effective for solving a number of adaptive problems among early humans

• solving such problems enhance the survival and reproductive success of the individual so the mental module would have spread through the gene pool 

• mental modules evolved to ‘tell us what to do’ in order to deal with situations similar to those faced by ancestral humans

outline the evolutionary explanation of aggression: sexual competition

• ancestral males seeking access to females would have to compete with other males through aggression

• those individuals who use aggression successfully against competitors would have been more successful in acquiring mates so would be more successful in passing on their genes to offspring 

• led to development of a genetically transmitted tendency for males to be aggressive towards other males

outline the evolutionary explanation of aggression: evidence of sexual competition

• Puts argues that various male traits seem to imply that competition with other males did take place among ancestral males 

• e.g. universally males have thicker jawbones, robust skulls, brow ridges and 75% more muscle mass than women (Lassek and Gaulin)

outline the evolutionary explanation of aggression: sexual jealousy

• Archer argues aggression can occur as a result of sexual jealousy, which arises as a result of parental uncertainty

• men can never be entirely certain that they are fathers of their children, as fertilisation is hidden from them, so are at risk of cuckoldry (reproductive cost as a result of his partners infidelity)

• consequence is that a man might unwittingly invest his resources in offspring that are not his own so aggression minimises the risk of infidelity and cuckoldry

outline the evolutionary explanation of aggression: evidence of sexual jealousy

Dobash and Dobash found that the majority of cases women cite extreme jealousy on the part of their partners as the key cause of the violence directed towards them

outline the evolutionary explanation of aggression: consequence of warfare

behaviour associated with warfare would have evolved because of the adaptive benefits for the individual and their offspring e.g. obtain valuable resources, attract mates and forge intragroup bonds

outline the evolutionary explanation of aggression: consequence of warfare on mates

Chagnon found male warriors in traditional societies tend to have more sexual partners and more children, suggesting a direct reproductive benefit

outline the evolutionary explanation of aggression: consequence of warfare on status

• aggression in combat can increase status for individual warriors 

• lead to peers to respect them more as that individual dominates other males

briefly outline a strength of the evolutionary aggression: research support

• Buss found that males display a heightened sensitivity to perceived affronts to their status and reputation, such that many acts of male-on-male violence result from one male perceiving a slight to his status from another male

• Shackelford et al. found that male retention strategies, such as negative inducements, are a method of expressing sexual jealousy, which leads to aggressive behaviour towards females and other partners to reduce infidelity

briefly outline a criticism of the evolutionary explanation: gender biased

• explanation argues women haven’t evolved to be aggressive as did not face reproductive competition and were more likely to select aggressive men to protect their babies (alpha bias)

• BUT females also commit aggressive behaviour to express sexual jealousy, but adopt a more social form, by producing behaviours that are designed to harm another person's social status or self-esteem through gossiping etc. (Prinz)

briefly outline a criticism of the evolutionary explanation: cultural differences

• explanation would suggest aggression would be uniform across the human species because the motivation for such behaviour is identical (i.e. increase chances of survival and reproduction)

• BUT the !Kung San people of the Kalahari have negative attitudes towards the use of aggression so discourage it from childhood as those who use aggression lose their status are diminished 

• whereas the Yanomamo appear to accept aggression and require the behaviour in order to gain status in their highly structured society

• suggests that the innate nature of aggression can be outweighed by non-evolutionary cultural and social factors

who developed the frustration-aggression hypothesis

dollard et al.

briefly outline the frustration-aggression hypothesis

• proposed that the existence of frustration (any stimulus preventing an individual from attaining some goal) always leads to some form of aggression 

• contextual factors, such as the threat of punishment, could inhibit aggressive behaviour in some situations

outline the cause and effect relationship proposed by frustration-aggression hypothesis

• external factors prevent goal achievement, resulting in frustration

• frustration is increased by strong motivation to achieve a goal, expectation of gratification and lack of control

• frustration leads to the arousal of an aggressive drive which leads to aggressive behaviour

• aggressive urges can be relieved through the production of an aggressive behaviour which has a cathartic effect on the individual (i.e. an emotional release that is achieved by the person engaging in aggressive behaviour)

outline an example of the frustration-aggression hypothesis: brown et al.

• surveyed british holidaymakers who were prevented from travelling by ferry to france because french fishing boats blocked the french port 

• found an increase in hostile attitudes towards the french as a result of the passengers frustration

outline the frustration-aggression hypothesis: justified and unjustified frustration

• doob and sears asked participants to imagine how they would feel in a number of different frustrating situations e.g. waiting for a bus which went by w/o stropping

• most participants reported that they would feel angry in all of the frustrating situations 

• pastore distinguished between justified and unjustified frustration, arguing that it was mainly the unjustified that produces anger and aggression

• pastore produced different variations of doob and sears’ research (i.e. justified and unjustified) e.g. added that the bus was displaying a ‘out of service’ message 

• found under this condition (justified frustration), participants expressed much lower levels of anger

outline the frustration-aggression hypothesis: displaced aggression

• when people are frustrated, they experience a drive to be aggressive towards the object of their frustration

• but it is often impossible or inappropriate to behave aggressively towards the source of frustration and as a result any attempt to be aggressive is inhibited

• dollard et al. assumed aggression is sometimes displaced from the source of the frustration on to another individual 

• sometimes referred to ‘kicking the dog’ effect as the individual may have an impulse to attack the source of their frustration but this is impossible so respond by kicking the dog instead to experience catharsis (i.e. scapegoating)

who developed the revised frustration-aggression hypothesis

berkowitz

outline the revised frustration-aggression hypothesis

• argued frustration doesn’t always lead to aggression and aggression can occur in the absence of frustration - stated that the likelihood of aggression would change in the presence of certain cues (e.g. weapons)

• argued anything that interferes with our ability to reach a goal is experienced as an aversive experience

• unanticipated interference with goal attainment is more likely to provoke an aggressive reaction compared to anticipated interference

• such unpleasant experiences (e.g. frustration) create ‘negative affect’ in the individual (i.e. negative feelings), such feelings creates the tendency to engage in aggressive behaviour 

briefly outline the social learning theory as an explanation of aggression

bandura and walters believed that the specifics of aggressive behaviour are learned by observing models we identify with and imitating behaviours that are seen to be rewarded

outline social learning theory as an explanation of aggression: observation

children primarily learn aggressive responses through observation of a model and then imitating that behaviour

outline social learning theory as an explanation of aggression: observation - vicarious reinforcement

• children observe and learn about consequences of aggressive behaviour by watching others being reinforced or punished 

• witness many examples of aggression at home, school, television and films

• by observing the consequences of aggressive behaviour for those who use it, a child gradually learns something about what is considered appropriate and effective conduct in the world around them 

• so learn behaviours via observation and whether/when such behaviours are worth repeating via vicarious reinforcement

outline social learning theory as an explanation of aggression: mental representations

• bandura claimed that in order for social learning to take place, the child must form mental representations of events in their social environment

• representations incl possible rewards and punishments of their aggressive behaviour in terms of expectancies of future outcomes 

• when appropriate opportunity arises, the child will display the learned behaviour as long as the expectation of reward is greater than the expectation of punishment

• learn rules of conduct from those around them, such script (rules) becomes internalised and the pattern of behaviour can become a way of life

outline social learning theory as an explanation of aggression: production of behaviour - maintenance through direct experiences

• if a child is rewarded for a behaviour, he or she is likely to repeat the same action in similar situations in the future 

• child who has a history of successfully bullying other children will come to attach considerable value to aggression

outline social learning theory as an explanation of aggression: production of behaviour - self efficacy expectancies

• develop confidence in their ability to carry out the necessary aggressive actions 

• children for whom this form of behaviour has been particularly disastrous in the past have less confidence in their ability to use aggression successfully to resolve conflicts so may turn to other means

outline research into social learning theory as an explanation of aggression: bandura et al. - aim

to investigate if social behaviours (aggression) can be acquired by observation and imitation

outline research into social learning theory as an explanation of aggression: bandura et al. - method

• male and female 3-5 year olds

• 50% exposed to adult model being aggressive towards life-sized bobo doll and other 50% exposed to models that were non-aggressive 

• model displayed distinctive physically aggressive acs towards the doll e.g. striking on the head with a mallet and verbal aggression (pow)

• following exposure, children were shown attractive toys but they weren’t allowed to play with them so became frustrated

• then taken to a room where among toys there was a bobo doll

outline research into social learning theory as an explanation of aggression: bandura et al. - findings

• children in aggressive condition reproduced physical and verbal aggression behaviour 

• children in non-aggressive exhibited no physical and verbal aggression

• ⅓ of children in aggressive condition imitate verbal remarks of the models

• boys reproduced more imitative physical aggression than girls but no difference in imitation of verbal aggression

what is meant by deindividuation

refers to a state in which individuals have lower self-awareness and a weaker sense of personal responsibility for their actions, may result from the relative anonymity of being part of a crowd

outline the concept of deindividuation as an explanation of aggression

• based on le bon’s classic crowd theory 

• le bon described how an individual was transformed when part of a crowd 

• in a crowd, the combination of anonymity, suggestibility and contagion mean that a ‘collective mind’ takes possession of the individual

• as a consequence, the individual loses self-control and becomes capable of acting in a way that goes against personal or social norms

outline the nature of deindividuation as an explanation of aggression: festinger et al.

described deindividuation as a psychological state in which inner restraints are lost when ‘individuals are not seen or paid attention to as people’

outline the nature of deindividuation as an explanation of aggression: zimbardo

• argued that the psychological state of deindividuation is aroused when individuals join crowds or large groups that act as a ‘cloak of anonymity’

• such cloak diminishes any personal consequences for their actions

• factors that contribute to this state of deindividuation include anonymity (e.g. wearing a uniform) and altered consciousness due to drugs or alcohol

outline the process of deindividuation as an explanation of aggression

• people normally refrain from acting in an aggressive manner partly as there are social norms inhibiting such ‘uncivilised’ behaviour and as they are easily identifiable 

• being anonymous (so unaccountable) in a crowd has the psychological consequence of reducing inner restraints and increasing behaviours that are usually inhibited 

• being part of a crowd can diminish awareness of our own individuality as each person is faceless and anonymous (the larger the group, the greater the anonymity)

• diminishes fear of the negative evaluation of actions, so weaken the normal barrier to anti-social behaviour that are based on guilt or shame 

outline the research into deindividuation as an explanation of aggression: stanford prison experiment (zimbardo)

• found that the ‘guards’ (played in a deindividuated state) acted aggressively towards the ‘prisoners’ 

• guards wore mirrored sunglasses to accentuate their deindividuated state 

outline the research into deindividuation as an explanation of aggression: zhong

found that wearing mirrored sunglasses male people feel greater anonymity which in turn increase the experience of deindividuation

outline the research into deindividuation as an explanation of aggression: zimbardo - aim

to investigate whether there is a relationship between the process of deindividuation and aggression

outline the research into deindividuation as an explanation of aggression: zimbardo - method

• groups of 4 female undergraduates were required to deliver electric shocks to another student to ‘aid learning’

• ½ of the participants wore bulky lab coats and hoods that hid their faces, sat in separate cubicles and never referred to by name 

• other ½ wore normal clothes, given large name tags, were introduced to each other by name and able to see each other when seated at the shock machines

outline the research into deindividuation as an explanation of aggression: zimbardo - findings

participants in the deindividuation condition were more likely to press the shock button and for twice as long compared to identifiable participants

what is meant by institutional aggression

refers to aggressive acts that are found in particular violent institutions such as prisons

identify the situational and dispositional explanations of institutional aggression in prisons

deprivation model and importation model respectively

briefly outline the situational explanation of institutional aggression in prisons: the deprivation model

• Paterline and Peterson argued that institutional aggression is the product of the stressful and oppressive conditions of the prison itself, rather than the characteristics of an individual

• inmates may cope with the pains of imprisonment by choosing to rebel in the form of violence against other prisoners or staff

outline the situational explanation of institutional aggression in prisons: the deprivation model - specific deprivations

• Sykes identified deprivations that increase aggression

• deprived of security (heightened sense of physical threat), goods, relationships, autonomy (few choices) and liberty (little freedom)

outline research into the situational explanation of institutional aggression in prisons: kimmet and martin

• studied over 200 prison inmates, discovering that violence in prison is frequently a way of surviving the risk of exploitation (by appearing weak)

• found that most violent situations in prisons were more to do with non-material interests such as the need for respect and fairness or as a way of expressing loyalty and honour

outline the situational explanation of institutional aggression in prisons: the role of prison characteristics

• Cooke et al. claimed that ‘violent prisoners are only violent in certain circumstances’

  1. overcrowding

  2. heat and noise

  3. job burnout

outline the situational explanation of institutional aggression in prisons: the role of prison characteristics - overcrowding

Ministry of Justice found that record rates of murder, suicide and assaults were linked to increased overcrowding in prisons

outline the situational explanation of institutional aggression in prisons: the role of prison characteristics - heat and noise

prisons tend to be hot and noisy places so high temperatures and noise exacerbate the effects of overcrowding and may predispose inmates to aggressive behaviour 

outline the situational explanation of institutional aggression in prisons: the role of prison characteristics - job burnout

prison staff being psychologically worn out and exhausted from a job and a gradual loss of caring about the people with whom they work (Maslach et al.)

briefly outline a strength of the situational explanation of institutional aggression: research support

• McCorkle et al. studied 371 prisons, found overcrowding with a lack of privacy and security significantly increased violence whilst prisons that had vocational programmes reduced violence

• led to applications: Wilson found lower temperatures and noise with increased space eradicated violence in the HMP Woodhill, so can be used to improve prisons

briefly outline a criticism of the situational explanation of institutional aggression: challenging evidence

• Harer and Steffensmeier collected data from more than 24,000 inmates from 58 prisons, included importation variables (e.g. race and criminal history) and deprivation variables (staff-to-prisoner ratio and security level) 

• found that race, age and criminal history were the only significant predictors of prison violence whilst none of the deprivation variables were significant

briefly outline the dispositional explanation of institutional aggression in prisons: the importation model

Irwin and Cressey argued that inmates are not ‘blank slates’ when they enter, instead, they bring in their violent pasts and experiences into the prison where toughness and physical exploitation are important survival skills 

outline the dispositional explanation of institutional aggression in prisons: gang membership

• Allender and Marcel found pre-prison gang memberships appears to be an important determinant of prison misconduct 

• violence is seen as the social norm as it is was rewarded by other members as increases status and avoid exploitation etc.

• known as ‘code of the streets’

outline the dispositional explanation of institutional aggression in prisons: role of dispositional characteristics - anger, antisocial personality type and impulsivity

• Wang and Diamond found that these characteristics were stronger predictors of institutional aggression than ethnicity and type of offence committed 

• anger was the best predictor as predisposed inmates to behave violently

outline the dispositional explanation of institutional aggression in prisons: role of dispositional characteristics - low self control

• DeLisi et al. found that low self-control, particularly the tendency to lose one's temper easily was a significant predictor of aggressive behaviour both before and during incarceration

• may be learnt through aggressive role models or MAOA-L variant

briefly outline a strength of the dispositional explanation of aggression: research support

• Mears et al. measured the code belief and experience of inmates from deprived areas, found higher levels of violence was positively correlated with lack of family support, strong belief in the code and gang membership

• BUT DeLisi found inmates with prior street gang involvement were no more likely than other inmates to engage in violence 

• lack of association can be explained by the violent gang members tending to be isolated from the general inmate population, restricting opportunities for violence (Fischer)

briefly outline a solution of the explanations of institutional aggression: holism

• Jiang and Fisher-Giorlando suggested that the importation model is a better explanation of violence between inmates whilst the deprivation model is more useful in understanding inmate aggression against staff

• Dobbs and Waid argued as inmates enter prison for the first time they will suffer from deprivation (due to unfamiliarity) but this doesn’t necessarily lead to aggression until it combines with individual characteristics imported into prison by inmates

• Dilulio suggested the ‘administrative control model’ that takes into account the combined effect of poor prison management and pre-existing behaviours

what is meant by media influences

changes in behaviour that are attributed to exposure to media, such as television and computer games

outline lab research into the media influences, particularly violent films and television, on aggression: Bjorkqvist

exposed 5 to 6 years olds to either violent or non-violent films, finding that children who had watched the violent film were subsequently rated much higher on measures of physical aggression

outline longitudinal research into the media influences, particularly violent films and television, on aggression: Huesmann et al.

• studied 557 children in 1977, and then 329 of these 15 years later 

• finding that habitual early exposure to violent television was predictive of later adult aggression

• relationship persisted even when the possible effects of differences in parenting styles etc. were controlled

outline research into the media influences, particularly violent computer games, on aggression: Porter and Starcevic

• interactive violence in video games exerts a greater influence on aggression as individual plays a more active role e.g. first person shooter games

• games often reward aggression to progress through the game, portraying it as appropriate and effective

outline lab research into the media influences, particularly violent computer games, on aggression: Anderson and Dill

• found that participants blasted their opponents with white noise for longer and rated themselves higher on a hostility scale

• after playing a violent ‘first person shooter’ game compared to a slow-paced puzzle game

outline longitudinal research into the media influences, particularly violent computer games, on aggression: Anderson et al.

• surveyed 430 children gaining self reports from peers/teachers etc.

• found children who had high exposure to violent video games became more verbally and physically aggressive

outline research into the media influences, particularly violent computer games, on aggression: Greitemeyer and Mugge

• meta analysis of 98 studies into the effect of violent games in which the goal is to harm someone against prosocial games in which the goal is to benefit someone

• found that violent video game use was linked to an increase in aggression and a decrease in prosocial behaviour

identify the three explanations of media influences on aggression

1. desensitisation 

2. disinhibition

3. cognitive priming

outline desensitisation as an explanation of media influences on aggression

• repeated exposure to violent media, the more acceptable aggressive behaviour becomes due to lowered emotional response of anxiety/fear

• becomes perceived as ‘normal’ (not negative) so more likely to engage in aggression (Muller and Linz)

• desensitisation occurs due to reduced physiological arousal and cognitive reaction to violence (Linz et al.)

outline disinhibition as an explanation of media influences on aggression

• exposure to violent media legitimises aggression as it undermines the social sanctions that usually inhibit such ‘drive to act’ to aggressively

• prolonged exposure causes violence to be perceived as acceptable, normal part of life

• when violence is justified or left unpunished, concerns about consequences of violence are reduced