Enlightenment & Age of Revolutions (Test Three)-- Modern World History

What did Voltaire believe in?

Freedom of speech and religion, the church is irrational. Against the slave trade and religious prejudice.

What book did Voltaire write?

Candide, which was about a character who travelled to America and the Middle East and discovered the best of all possible words, exposing the corruption and hypocrisy of European society

What were Thomas Hobbes’s ideas?

Believed humans were naturally greedy, selfish, and cruel. He believed that an extremely powerful government was necessary to control men and ensure an orderly society. He therefore supported the idea of an absolute monarchy.

What book did Thomas Hobbes write?

1651, wrote book called Leviathan, which talked about human nature being naturally cruel, selfish, and greedy

What is Voltaire’s real name?

François-Marie Arouet

What were John Locke’s view on human nature?

• Optimistic view of human nature

• Believed that people were naturally reasonable and moral

• This meant that they all had natural rights-- rights that belonged to all people from birth (life, liberty, and property)

What book did Locke write?

Wrote Two Treatises of government, where Locke argued that people should form governments that protect their natural rights

What type of government did Locke believe in?

• Said that the best kind of government listened to the people, had limited power, and was accepted by everyone. He was against the absolute monarchy that Hobbes supported

• He proposed a government that had the obligation to protect people’s natural rights, and if they can’t do this, then the people have a right to overthrow the government

What is Montesquie’s book called?

Published The Spirit of the Laws in 1748, where he discussed governments throughout history

What did Montesquie do?

• Came up with the idea of dividing government into 3 branches, legislative, executive, and judicial

• One branch of government also has the ability to limit the other two, known as checks and balances

• Had impact in US constitution

Who was Diderot?

• Worked for 4 years to produce a 28 volume set of books called the Encyclopedia, published in 1789 

• Purpose was to change the general way of thinking, by explaining ideas on topics such as government, philosophy, and religion

• Included articles of leading thinkers of the day, such as Montesquieu and Voltaire

• Philosophes denounced slavery, praised freedom of expression and education for all

• Attacked divine right theory and traditional religions

What were Rousseau’s ideas?

• Believed human nature was naturally good

• Natural innocence was corrupted by society, esp unequal distribution of property

• Believed in “general will” or the best conscience of the people

• “The good of the community as a whole should be placed above individual interests”

Describe Roussaeu’s ideal government system?

• Believed that control was necessary, but should be minimal

• The only government that is able to implement these controls should be elected by the people

• Very against any type of oppressive government

Where did Rousseau publish his ideas?

Published his ideas in The Social Contract in 1762, which stated that society placed too many limitations on people’s behavior

What were Mary Wollstonecraft’s ideas?

Wollstonecraft accepted that a women’s first duty was to be a good mother, but that she should be able to decide what was in her own interest. Said that education was crucial to give women the tools needed to participate equally with men in society. Significantly influenced women’s rights movements for the next century

What book did Mary Wollstonecraft write?

She wrote a book, called A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, where she pressed for equal education of girls and boys

Who was very against slavery?

Diderot was very against slavery, saying that it violated all rights of human nature

Physiocrats

 basing thinking on natural laws. Claimed that their rational economic system was based on natural laws of economics

Laissez-Faire Economic

policy that allows businesses to operate with little to no government interference.

What were Adam Smith’s ideas?

• Favored free enterprise system, in which commerce and business should have little to no government interference

• Came up with idea of supply and demand, saying that whenever there was a demand for goods or services, suppliers would try to meet that demand so they could make profit

• Strong supporter of Laissez-Faire economics 

• Felt that government still had the duty to protect society, administer justice, and provide publics works

• Smith’s ideas shaped productive economies in 1800s and 1900s

Who wrote the Bill of Rights and what are they?

Thomas Jefferson; amendments to the constitution guaranteeing rights to the citizens

What is Deism?

A new religion that was a form of "rational theology." Belief in God based on reason rather than revelation or the teaching of any specific religion. Belief in god who does not intervene with people's life, but god does exist

Who was John Paul Marat?

He was an inflammatory French newspaper man and journalist during the revolution. Professional malcontent. "The Friend of the People." Called for increasing violence and more executions in France.

Who killed Marat?

Charlotte Corday kills him.

Rousseau vs Hobbes

Hobbes believed that everyone was born bad, and Rousseau believed that everyone was born good. Hobbes believed in Social Contract and strong government to control, while Rousseau believed that society corrupts us. Both believed utopia was possible, just entirely different was to get there

When was the Declaration of Independence adopted, who was the author?

July 4, 1776; Thomas Jefferson

What are natural laws?

The philosophical laws that are said to govern human nature; can be used to create utopia

How did the Renaissance lead to the Enlightenment?

Like the Renaissance placed a new emphasis on secularism and individual achievement, the Sci Rev and Enlightenment focused on science & natural laws, rather than religious authority

What was "The General Will"?

Rousseau's idea that we should give up our personal desires to prioritize what is best for society as a whole. Obeying the laws that they have created means that we actually remain free.

What was "The Social Contract"?

An agreement between the members of a society to give up certain freedoms to become more free and become a better society as a whole. Pioneered by Hobbes and Rousseau, in totally different ways

What book did Adam Smith write?

Wrote The Wealth of the Nations, in it arguing that the free market (natural forces of supply and demand) should be allowed to operate and regulate business

What book did Montesquie write?

In the Persian Letters by Montesquieu, he used fictional Persian traveler characters to mock French society

What was the role of salons in the enlightenment?

• People would often discuss ideas of philosophy, literature, art, and science in salons (which were informational social gatherings)

• Middle class citizens met with nobles to discuss Enlightenment ideas

• Madame Geoffrin ran one of the most respected salons, including the brightest and most talented people

• Diderot was a regular at her weekly dinners for philosophers and poets

• Motzart often played for her guests

What was the architecture style during this time?

There was a new style being introduced, known as baroque. Baroque paintings were huge, colorful, and exciting, displaying historical battles or the lives of saints. Rococo art was also introduced, which was lighter, more personal, elegant, and charming. Featured delicate shells and flowers, and more pastel colors were used. Popular with upper and middle class

What was music like during this time?

Music followed ordered/structured form, displaying the age of reason. Ballets and opera (plays set to music) were often performed at royal courts, and many opera houses began to open from Italy to England.

who were the most popular musicians of this time?

One of the biggest musicians was John Sebastian Bach, who wrote religious works for organ and choirs. Master of counterpoint melody. Handel was also extremely popular. Motzart was a music prodigy, and gained instant fame as a composer and performer. His operas displayed Enlightenment criticism of a class-ridden world

What was the Navigation Act?

An act that said colonists could ONLY trade with England.

What was the French Indian war?

Really a war between the British and the French+Indians. Over the settlers taking land more westward; cost a lot of money.

How did the French Indian war lead to the revolution?

After the French and Indian war had drained the British treasury, England felt that the colonists should pay for the war, as English citizens, and also because it was on American soil. They began to tax the colonists. Colonists viewed this as an attack on their rights, which led to the famous quote “No taxation without representation”. Since they had no representatives in the Parliament, what gives the Parliament the right to tax them?

When and where was war officially declared on Britain?

In 1775, Lexington & Concord Mass.

When was the Declaration of Independence written, and who was it written by? What kind of ideas did it contain?

Written by Thomas Jefferson on July 4th, 1776. Was heavily influenced by Enlightenment thinkers (John Locke specifically). Reflected ideas of political and legal ideas, including natural laws. People have certain inalienable rights (life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness). People have the right to change/abolish unjust government

What was the "shot heard around the world?"

The first shot that was fired, it was the first enlightenment revolution of many, the rest of the world basically followed suit.

Why did other countries aid the colonists in the war?

To weaken Britain and for future good will and trade with the Americans.

Who pioneered federal and state governments?

Thomas Jefferson

What document was signed to signify the end of the Revolution, and when did this happen?

The Treaty of Paris was signed in 1783, in Yorkshire, Virginia

Who wrote the constitution, and when was it written?

In 1787, the constitution of the United States was written by James Madison, George Washington, and Benjamin Franklin

What Enlightenment ideas were in the constitution?

• The Constitution had a lot of ideas from philosophes, specifically Locke, Montesquieu, and Rousseau

• They used Rousseau's idea of a social contract in their government 

• The 3 branches of government was directly used from Montesquieu’s ideas

• Many legal ideas are attributed to Locke, such as the famous quote “the law holds it better that ten guilty persons escape, than that one innocent party suffer”

• Federal republic, meaning that power is divided between the federal government and the states

• Used the ideas of checks and balances

• Free market economy-- capitalism

• Separation of church + state

What did the first estate look like in the Old Regime?

First Estate: Clergy

• Church

• Enormous wealth/privilege 

• 1% of population

• Owned 10% of land

• Collected tithes

• Paid no taxes

• Ran schools, hospitals, and orphanages

• Clergy was against Enlightenment thinkers for undermining religion/moral order

What did the second estate look like in the Old Regime?

Second Estate: Noble 

• 1% of population

• Did not pay taxes

• Owned majority of the land (heriditary)

• Made money by leasing/renting their land to peasants for farming

• Many came to hate absolutism and resented the royal bureaucracy that once had been reserved for them

• They feared losing their traditional privileges, including not having to pay taxes

What did the third estate look like?

Third Estate: Middle Class & Peasantry

• 98% of population

• 3 divisions

1) Bourgeoisie (bankers, merchants, lawyers, doctors)

2) peasants (mainly rural tenant farmers)

3) Working Class (urban workers, servants)

Why was the third estate unhappy with the Old Regime?

• They worked extremely hard, but this hard work never translated to enough money

• The best jobs were still reserved for nobles

• Because of traditional privileges, the first and second estates had to pay no taxes, meaning that majority of the texes went to the third estate

• Enlightenment ideas about equality led people to question the inequalities of the old regime

What was the economic crisis in the first stage of the revolution?

• Louis XIV had left France deeply in debt

• The Seven Years War and France’s alliance in the American Revolution strained the treasury even more

• Because of all these debts, the government needed to increase taxes, reduce expenses and social progressions, or both. But the first two estates were very against paying taxes

• Bad food harvests added to the economic instability

Who was Jacques Necker?

Financial advisory and expert that King Louis XVI hired. Necker proposed taxing the first and second estates, but the two classes forced the king to dismiss this idea

Why did Louis XVI call the Estates General?

To solve the economic crisis in France, but also to look like he cares so he can stay king

Why had no king called the Estates General in 175 years?

• No king had called them for so long because they feared that nobles would try to recover their lost feudal privileges under absolute monarchy

What is a cahier, and what did most of them contain?

A small notebook that King Louis had each of the Estates fill out before his meeting with the Estates General that listed their grievences. many included reforms such as fairer taxes, freedom of press, and regular meetings of the Estate General

Why was the third estate unhappy with the Estates General?

The Estates General had representatives from all 3 estates. Same number of representatives for each estate. The third estate was upset because only landowners could vote on their representatives in the estate general (and only landowners in third estate are bourgeoisie). The third estate had a significantly greater population than the other two, but there were still the same number of representatives for each estate, which was also unfair. The third estate was always outvoted 2 to 1 because the nobility and clergy disagreed with all of the problems that the third estate was facing

What new group did the third estate form?

• Because of inequality, the representatives of the 3rd estate broke away from the Estates General, and named themselves the National Assembly

• National Assembly was created to represent the interests of majority of the people

What was the Oath of the Tennis Court?

• They all met up in an indoor tennis court, and created the Oath of the Tennis court

• This oath made them swear to never separate and meet wherever the circumstances might require until they had established a just constitution

• King Louis XVI ended up accepting it when some reform minded clergy and joined the assembly, but there were rumors that he had plans to dissolve the assembly

French constitution of 1791

Stage 1 of the revolution. Installed a limited monarchy because abolition would have been too big of a change. Create a legislative assembly of elected representatives that can be voted on by taxpaying, male citizens only. This forces the 1st and 2nd estate to pay taxes. More moderate phase of the revolution. Only has one house of legislature.

French constitution of 1793

Stage 2 of the revolution. Very radical stage. All taxpayers were able to vote, no matter if they owned land or not. This started the Reign of Terror and the Committee of Public Safety that was headed by Robespierre. Many people were executed with the guillotine including Marie Antoinette and Louis XVI. There was intense paranoia that people could be killed for anything they did. France attempts to fully dechristianize. One legislature.

When was Bastille day, and what did it represent?

On July 14th, 1789, 800 Parisians assembled outside the Bastille, a medieval fortress used as a prison for political and other prisoners. The crowd demanded weapons and gunpowder that was stored there. They broke through and released the prisoners who were being held there. Bastille was a powerful symbol of the tyranny, inequalities, and injustices of the old order, and by storming it, it symbolized the end of the absolute monarchy

What royal family was King Louis XVI a part of?

The Bourbon family

Who was important to the philosophies of both revolutions and why?

John Locke was important because of his philosophy of natural rights

Why did people storm Bastille?

For the weapons in the armory portion, to free the political prisoners, and as an act of insurrection against the government

What was the Declaration of Rights of Man?

Gave people basic rights, such as liberty, natural rights and freedom of religion and inspired the French Constitution. Revolutionary document that gave rights to all citizens, even the poorest classes. Written by National Assembly in 1789

Why was "No Taxation Without Representation" important in both revolutions?

In the Americas, the colonists paid taxes to Britain with no say on what was happening, and the 3rd estate of the French paid taxes most couldn't vote, Louis XIV had the power.

What was the Great Fear?

In 1789, the political and social crisis that was happening in France was also punctuated by the worst Famine in French history. As food prices increased peasants flocked to the cities searching for work, but minimal jobs were available. There were rumors of peasant looting and stealing for food and other valuables, which sent a panic throughout France. King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette escape from Paris to their palace in Versaille

What was the importance of reason in the enlightenment?

During the renaissance and scientific revolution, people began to believe in the power of reason. They could find answers about the universe on their own, not just through the church and their rulers. Also, people began to value human experience over what their absolutist leaders told them.

How was the Great Fear handled?

• The National Assembly met and decided to abolish feudalism (old regime)

• The Declaration of the Rights of Man was created, which granted natural rights to all citizens and freedom of religion to all citizens

• No one could be arrested/tried/imprisoned unless it was according to the law

Why can the national assembly illegally make the declaration of rights of man?

• The King Louis XVI was so irresponsible and was not directly leading

• 98% of population (3rd estate) agreed with the national assembly

• The king and queen are arrested later on

What happens when Marie and Louis are caught trying to flee?

They are captured by citizens and brought back to Paris and put in prison. Become a puppet government. They can no longer stop the Nat'l assembly.

What was the effect of Louis and Marie fleeing?

Sign that they're all on their own, the King and Queen are basically worthless. Seen as cowardly abandonment. Frustration increases.

Who does France go to war with during the second stage?

They go to war with Prussia and Austria, there are many people that try to weaken the power of France. Their borders are slowly eaten away, many people killed in battle. Marie Antoinette is questioned if she's loyal to Austria (where she is from) or France.

who spread the fear of the French revolution to other European countries?

This fear was caused by emigres: nobles, clergy, and others who had fled France

who were sans culottes?

Working class men and women, called sans culottes pushed the revolution into more radical action. Men wore long trousers instead of the fancy knee breeches that people in the upper classes wore. By 1791, they wanted an end to monarchy, and a creation of a republic. They also wanted the government to guarantee them a living wage

who went against the radicals?

• People who opposed them were moderate reformers and officials who wanted no more reforms. The radicals had the upper hand in the Legislative Assembly

• In 1792, war broke out between French revolutionaries and European monarchs

How was monarchy abolished?

• On august 10th, 1792, a group of Parisians stormed the royal palace of Tuileries and killed the king’s guards

• A month later, citizens attacked prisons that held nobles and priests that were accused of political offenses 

• More than 1000 prisoners were killed

Who took control of the National Assembly and called for a new legislative body?

The radicals.

What was the name of the new legislative body established in 1792? Who named it this?

The National Convention, named by Robespierre

What voting change did the National Convention make in 1792?

Suffrage (the right to vote) was granted to all male citizens, not just property owners.

Which group set out to erase all traces of the old order in France?

The Jacobins.

What happened to Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette during the Revolution?

• Both were executed; Louis XVI in January 1793 and Marie Antoinette in October 1793.

What was the Reign of Terror?

A period during the second stage which many people were executed for allegedly opposing the Revolution.

What dangers did France face in early 1793?

War with Britain, Spain, the Netherlands, and Prussia; severe food shortages; inflation in Paris.

What was the purpose of the Committee of Public Safety?

To address threats to France, including war, internal dissent, and shortages.

Who was Robespierre, and what was his role in the Revolution?

A Jacobin leader and head of the Committee of Public Safety who used terror to protect the Revolution.

What led to the end of the Reign of Terror?

The Convention turned on Robespierre, and he was executed.

What was established by the Constitution of 1795?

A five-man Directory and a two-house legislature. It was made up of 5 people to move away from absolute monarchy/dictatorship, and it was a 2 house legislature to implement checks and balances

Who could vote under the Constitution of 1795, and why did they change it.

Male property-owning citizens. Didn’t want a replay of radical phase where uneducated peasants voted. At least the property owners were educated and not “crazed revolutionaries”

Why did the French people grow discontent with the Directory?

It was often corrupt, excluded working-class voting, and struggled with food prices.

How did Napoleon Bonaparte rise to power?

He outwitted the Directory in 1799, set up the Consulate, and eventually became Emperor of France.

What did Napoleon do to modernize France?

• He regulated the economy, built infrastructure, promoted education, and made peace with the Catholic Church.

What was the constitution of 1799?

created by Napoleon. this was when he replaced the directory with the consulate. it was made up of 3 people and he named himself first consul, then consul for life in 1804

What was the one house called in the Napoleonic code?

The plebiscite

How did Napoleon signify he was bringing back absolutism? How did people react to this?

• He invited the pope to come to his coronation, but during the ceremony, took the crown from the pope and placed it on himself. This signified that he owed his throne to no one but himself 

What was the Napoleonic Code?

A legal code implemented by Napoleon that established equality of all male citizens before the law, ensured religious toleration, and abolished feudalism. However, it severely restricted women’s rights, emphasizing their role in the household, and prioritized state authority over individual freedoms.

How did Napoleon impact French society?

He introduced meritocracy by allowing people to achieve positions based on talent, not birth. He redistributed land to peasants, secured bourgeoisie support by stabilizing the economy, and dismantled the Old Regime. Women, however, lost rights they previously had under the Revolution.

What did the Continental System attempt to achieve, and what was the result?

• The Continental System aimed to weaken Britain's economy by blocking its trade with Europe. However, it backfired, hurting European economies by disrupting commerce, leading to smuggling, economic hardship, and resistance. This contributed to wars with nations like Portugal and Spain, which allied with Britain.