Data, Statistics, and Ethics

A set of vocabulary flashcards covering descriptive statistics, hypotheses formulation, inferential statistics, and ethical guidelines for human research based on the lecture notes.

Mean ($M$)

The average score in a data set, calculated by dividing the sum of all individual scores by the total number of scores.

Median

The middle score in a data set determined by ordering scores numerically, where approximately half of the scores are below it and half are above it.

Outlier

An extreme score outside the range of normal scores that may greatly affect the mean and the range, but is less likely to affect the median.

Range

A measure of variability representing the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a data set, and does not indicate how scores are distributed.

Standard Deviation ($SD$)

A calculated statistic indicating the extent to which data points are clustered around the mean, representing the average distance between each score and the mean.

Hypothesis

A specific, testable prediction about the outcome of a study.

A Priori

A principle that makes a good hypothesis, stating that hypotheses should be formulated prior to data collection.

Grounded in the Methods

A characteristic of a good hypothesis specifying that it should indicate the specific methods used in the study.

Group Differences Hypothesis

A hypothesis predicting a difference on a variable based on group membership, such as predicting Group $A$ will score higher than Group $B$ on Variable $X$.

Correlational Hypothesis

A hypothesis predicting that variables are related, such that as the value of Variable $X$ rises, the value of Variable $Y$ also rises.

Inferential Statistics

Statistics used to determine whether results from a sample can be generalized to the larger population by showing if the results are or are not due to chance.

Statistically Significant

An effect that is greater than chance, which is heavily dependent on sample size and may not indicate practical significance.

The Tuskegee Study

A study conducted between 1932 and 1972 on 399 poor African American men who were not informed of their syphilis diagnosis or study participation, resulting in 128 deaths and 40 wives contracting syphilis despite available treatment.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A committee at most colleges and universities that oversees research to protect participants against abuse or unethical conduct and must approve all research conducted by institution members.

Informed Consent

An ethical requirement where researchers inform subjects about procedures, risks, and benefits, and participants agree to participate with the right to end participation at any time.

Deception

A research technique allowed only when scientific knowledge cannot be gained without it and potential benefits outweigh the costs.

Debriefing

An ethical process at the end of a study where participants are informed of the study's goals, hypotheses, and any deception used.

Protection from Harm or Discomfort

An ethical guideline requiring researchers to take reasonable steps to avoid or minimize harm to participants.