AQA A Level Sociology Paper 2 - The Media

hegemony

- occurs when ruling class control society's institutions

- through these, subconsciously transmit ideas seen as essential to their social group

mass media

forms of communication that transmit information news and entertainment to a mass audience

hegemony

- occurs when ruling class control society's institutions

- through these, subconsciously transmit ideas seen as essential to their social group

mass media

forms of communication that transmit information news and entertainment to a mass audience

new media

media based within new technology share a number of important characteristics that differentiate them from old media e.g. digitalisation

digitalisation

growth of digital technology in the 90s resulted in changes in the way info is stored, transmitted and converted into binary code

technological convergence

digitalisation resulted in the convergence of different types of info into a single delivery system available to the media e.g. smart tv

technological convergence - Boyle

digitalisation allows for media to be delivered across a range of platforms which would be previously be separated and unconnected

economic convergence

media companies that previously produced separated and distinct systems of communications e.g. phone begin to make economic alliances with each other as the boundaries of media have been reduced, creating multimedia delivery systems

cultural convergence

the new media has changed the way we interact in society, and consumerism

- 6/10 adults in the UK use the media to buy produce e.g. food (OEOD), compared to 3/10 in other OEOD countries

- 9 million in the UK communicate over twitter

- Facebook default social networking for adults (96%)

interactivity

new media interactive, and responds in 'real time' to user input through clicking on links e.g. lets users choose what they see, and are able to mix and match info e.g. different news sources

choice

- Jenkins: can interact with a variety of media, often using a single device

- Boyle: societies use of TV evolved from system of supply to demand led, organised around what users should chose to watch and when; viewers no longer constrained by schedules

participatory culture

Jenkins: producers and consumers no longer coupe separate roles, now interact

audiences no longer passive receivers, instead often actively collaborate with new media and other users by uploading content e.g. trip-advisor

collective intelligence

Jenkins: challenges traditional/ official ways of seeing the world provided by media owners e.g. new media an alternative user led source, that is often critical of info produced top down by traditional forms of media

general statistics

84% adults in uk accessed internet, using variety of devices inside the home, compared with 54%

general statistics

69% people accessed internet via smartphones, tablets, laptops and PCs

general statistics

claimed weekly hours of internet use among all adult doubled from 9.9 to 20.5

general statistics

texting preferred from of social contact for majority, at least 96% do this once a week

generation divide (Boyle)

new media often associated with young. those growing up over past 15 years have a better experience of the new media - differ from previous generations. more likely to want it and tailored towards them

generation divide (Ofcom)

12-15 year olds more likely than adults to be engaged in some form of cross-media multi tasking e.g. watching TV while doing hw. however, generation divide may be on the decline as older age group increasingly engage in online activities

generation divide (Boyle)

young peoples access to a greater range of gadgets amplified concerns about what they can access e.g. terrorist propaganda, grooming

digital class divide (Ofcom)

although it has narrowed in the past years, it still exists. 95% AB socio-economic group use range of new media devices to go online in any location, cambered to 75% DE groups

digital class divide (Helsper)

a digital underclass, characterised by unemployment, lower education and digital skills does exist in UK. this group has increased its use of the internet at a much slower rate than others and members that do have access rate their skills as poorer

digital gender divide (Ofcom)

men (23.3 hours/w) more likely than women (17.8) to access internet

women more likely than men to go online and look at social media (67%/60%)

digital gender divide (Li and Kirkup)

men more likely than women to use email or chat rooms, and placed more computer games on xbox and console

global digital divide (WEF)

2014, divide between developed and developing nations is worsening

% households with internet access

Europe: 78/80

World: 43.6/80

Africa: 11.1/80

global digital divide (GSMA)

72% Africans use mobile phones, but false impression:

- mobile connectivity limited

- only 18% smartphones

- regional disparities e.g. 5% Eritrea owns a phone

- only 7% are online

- language barrier

- illiteracy

Neophiliacs

optimistic about spread and influence of new media technologies, that they see as offering more choice and opportunity to participate interactively and effectively in democratic process

Cultural pessimists

new media not that new, interactivity an illusion as ownership concentrated in hands of powerful corporations, thus dent contribute to democratic process. content a factor in decline of popular culture, leading to social problems e.g. grooming

Neophiliacs - increased consumer choice

- due to convergence and interactivity

- 100s of entertainment and delivery systems e.g iTunes

- Pluralist Neophiliacs: competition between this diversity improves media output quality

Neophiliacs - e-commerce revolution

- e-retailers e.g. eBay, great economic successes and undermined high street sales

- most major commercial companies have websites

- resulted in more choice for consumers, as increases competition, lowers prices and puts consumer in control as they can compare prices

Neophiliacs - revitalising democracy

- new media offers opportunities to acquire info requires to play a role in democratic process, and make politicians more accountable to the people

- able to access info from different views that corporations that control traditional media don't want to broadcast, at little to no cost - can lead to social change as like-minded people join together

Neophiliacs - revitalising economy (Itzoe)

internet can be used to challenge elites:

- monitor illegal/ immoral actives of big businesses

- harness mass support for causes e.g. Make Poverty History

- coordinate protesters and activists

The power of twitter: the topping of president Mubarak (Murray)

twitter helped enable a mass movement of people onto the streets and bring international attention. so much so it had to be shut down for a week in jan 2011

Cultural pessimists - not so new media (Conford and Robins)

- 'old' tech still integral to use of new media e.g. broadband

- interactivity not new e.g. phone phoned into radio for years

- only new thing is speed

Cultural pessimists - not so new media: The Hollywood Analogy

- The relationship between old and new media is like an old Hollywood movie and its remake: characters and story are the same, but special effects and budget better

Cultural pessimists - Domination of media conglomerates

Internet is dominated by small number of media corporations. Over three-quarters of the 31 most visited news and entertainment websites affiliated with the largest media corporations, (Curran)

Cultural pessimists - media conglomerate

a media conglomerate, group, or institution is a company that owns numerous companies involved in mass media enterprises, e.g. radio, publishing, motion pictures, theme parks, or the Internet

Cultural pessimists - Domination of media conglomerates (Jenkins)

- most new media developed out of investment from the big media corporations, began in 1980's

- owning different types of media made it more desirable for companies to develop across a variety of media platforms and delivery systems

Cultural pessimists - Domination of media conglomerates

- Microsoft have developed software which enables us to access the web

- Without these companies we couldn't log on in the first place. It directs users to commercial services, so plays a large role in advertising

- Internet is content controlled or by big entertainment, companies

Cultural pessimists - commercialisation

- Millions use internet to pay bills, buy services e.g. - makes life easier

- Negatives: many engage in consumer surveillance

- New technologies, e.g. cookies, monitor and process data generated by interactive media usage so they can target potential future audiences and enhance profits

Cultural pessimists - critique

It can encourage materialism, consumerism and false needs thus furthering capitalist domination and control.

Cultural pessimists - reinforcing elite power

- Jenkins: not all participants in new media created equal, corporations still have greater power

- Elite powers government agencies have seen powerful impact new media has and have developed websites to ensure their world view is dominant in internet content

- The British Security service have ability to view private info stored on phones

Cultural pessimists - reinforcing elite power

- media technologies are strengthening power of the existing elites as opposed to promoting alternative ideas, free speech and democracy. These strengthens class divide - those who are unable to access the internet have the most genuine political grievances

- even if we think we have freedom of speech and the power to control our actions, this is affected by elite power

Cultural pessimists - reinforcing elite power: Hill and Hughes

- found only 6% of web pages devoted to political issues

- 78% political opinions expressed on American websites mainstream

- When new media used to support anti-elite protest, only one of many forms used to bring people together

- As new media has developed and conglomerates have become more powerful, media dominated with elite messages and opposing views pushed to the margins

Cultural pessimists - Decline in the quality of popular culture (Harvey)

- digital TV dramatically increased no of channels, but has led to dumbing down of popular culture as TV companies fill these channels e.g. films, repeats, gambling. TV culture transmits candy floss culture that speaks to everyone in general

Cultural pessimists - Decline in the quality of popular culture

- Over past 10 years ITV and BBC have had to become more like tabloids to compete with other channels e.g. Sky

- resulted in decline in documentaries and news coverage and an increase in reality television programmes

- Therefore "more choice" is simply more of the same

lack of regulation on media

- All points of view represented on the internet, but is argued that easy access to pornographic, homophobic, racist and extremist sites is taking freedom of speech too far

- however, this is price to pay for the free expression and exchange of info

- many of the internet content is out of the UK's control, as the web address belong to other countries

Turtle - alone together

- new media users a "cyborgs": fictional person whose physical abilities extended beyond normal human limitations by mechanical elements built into the body

- they are always connected to each other regardless of where they are via their laptops

- People devoted to their communication devices, like another limb

- However, has lead to greater anxiety and isolation, you have virtual friends but not real friends

Livingstone - technology interferes with family life

As younger generation increasingly on their new media devices, parents more and more have to communicate with their children at meal times via text or Facebook

Keen's criticisms of the new media

- Social networking sites don't contribute to democratic process as they are merely vehicles for self-broadcasting, and self promotion

- User-generated sites e.g. Wikipedia, open to abuse and bias so unreliable sources of info. Internet created cut and paste thieves, who plagiarise others

Keen's criticisms of the new media

- Much of the output of new media e.g. twitter unchecked, so uninformed opinion, sometimes lies, trolling the norm

- internet contributing to cultural illiteracy. young people less engaged in researching world around them because web gives them easy access facts. Thus they have shorter attention spans and poor problem solving skills

3 types of media organisation

- commute based e.g. radio station in local hospital

- public/state owned e.g. BBC

- privately owned e.g. Virgin

concentration of media ownership (Bagdikian)

- 1983: 50 organisations owned majority USA media

- 1992: 22

- 2014: 6 - including Disney and CBS

- less sources, more bias, and able to push out views that don't agrees

The British Newspaper Industry (Curran)

- 1937: 4 men owned 1 in 2 newspapers sold in UK

- 2015: 7 dominate ownership and content of UK daily news and Sunday Newspaper e.g. DMG controls Daily Mail, Mail on Sunday, Metro and 45 regional

- only 2 national newspaper groups controlled by companies rather than individuals: trinity mirror and guardian media group

concentration of media ownership

- ITV controls commercial content of terrestrial TV, and owns 12/15 regional commercial TV franchises

- Channel 5 owned by 1 person

- access to satellite, cable and digital TV in UK generally controlled by 3 companies: sky, virgin, BT

trends in media ownership (Peake)

- 1988: only 4 TV channels, over 250 today

- radio increased from 60 to 350

horizontal integration

- big media companies often own a range of types of media outlets

- e.g. News Corporation owns newspapers in Australia, UK, Fox News and parts of Sky

vertical integration

- increasing trend of media multinationals to control all levels of media production

- strengthens concentration of ownership

- e.g. Time Warner makes own films, and distributes to cinemas they own

lateral expansion

- media campaigns diversify into new business areas to spread economic risk

- losses made in one area compensate for another

- e.g. Virgin: music, publishing, cinema, airline, train and health services

global conglomerates

- major media organisations operate across national boundaries

- e.g. News Corporation originated in Australia, produced over 175 newspapers here and UK, and owns 37 TV stations at broadcast globally

increasing concentration of media ownership

- erosion of national boundaries means media corporations can spread (concentrate)

- globalisation opened new interactional markets developed especially in new media e.g. internet

- conglomerates form and have monopoly of ownership internationally

synergy

- media transnationals use their diversity to package products in different ways to increase profit

- e.g. film accompanied by DVD, soundtrack, poster, toys

technological convergence

- transnational media companies increasingly investing in ways to bring about grater technological convergence to make their media more accessible to global audience

- e.g. apple, Facebook

pluralist theory

- modern capitalist societies democratic

- journalists given media platform to express views to electoral, and most persuasive arguments will result in their representatives being voted into power

- mass media essential in democratic process

pluralists - the economics of media ownership

- free-market economy dictates media owners to compete against each other to attract people to their products

- free-market and pursuit of profit (at expense of other media companies) always going to outweigh idea that media corporations could impose their viewpoints on audiences and consumers

pluralists - the economics of media ownership

- readers, viewers and listeners are real power holders as exercise consumer sovereignty/ freedom of choice (right to buy or not to buy)

- if users don't like media offered to them, they not buy the product and media company would go out of business

pluralists - the economics of media ownership

- media owners always interested in making profits, tailor media to the consumer's tastes

- due to diversity of media worldwide, becomes impossible for media owners to control it as don't have time and capacity to do so

pluralists - the economics of media ownership

- global media market segmented and mass media corporations produce a lot of variety for consumers - this would counter any attempt to influence mass audience

- consumer choice: access to more diverse products

- consumer choices could make/ break a product e.g. Blackberry

pluralists - media as a democratic mirror

- diversity of media products leads to a democratic society as all views catered for

- if some views more represented in media, not bias, but that this is what audience are demanding more of

- e.g. if majority of news papers in UK raise concerns about Jeremy Corbyn refusing to push nuclear button, media owners just mirroring what majority of public concerned about

pluralists - public service broadcasting

- significant share of UK media operated by public service broadcasters (PSB), which are media outlets controlled by the state

- produce impartial media and cater for all different views e.g. BBC

- PBS is epitome of impartial and objective media and it counter weighs any bias that occurs in private media

pluralists - public service broadcasting

- in order for BBC to keep viewers, resorted to commercialize and populist its programming

- it is moving away from PSB aims, which is inevitable - although BBC has digitized channels and newspaper sites, this is a normal response to increased competition

- this is good for audiences.

pluralists - state controls

- power of media owners restricted by state and government controls

- governments don't allow owners to own too many media or different types of media

- done to reduce possibility that one person's/ group's views or products might become too dominant

pluralists - state controls

- Ofcom

- e.g. BBC and ITV have some form of legal requirements imposed upon them by Ofcom

- this type of control prevents media owners from imposing biased content on the general public

pluralists - media professionalism

- editors will never allow owners to have control over media

- media always had strong tradition of investigative journalism

- newspapers in UK have uncovered corruption in high places which lead to politicians resigning

criticisms of pluralism: Curran

- media owners undermined newspaper independence by choosing editors and journalists (or getting rid of them) which fail to toe their owner's line - conforming to owners rights gives them rewards, if they go against it, they draw negative attention towards themselves and could risk getting fired

criticisms of pluralism: Blumlerand Gurevitch

- overstate impartiality of journalists

- journalists over reliant on official courses, which undermines their objectivity

- many people in general public don't trust journalists

criticisms of pluralism: Trowler

- 500 journalists were embedded with British and American troops during the invasion of Iraq

- resulted in one-sided reportin as journalist grew to build relationships with the soldiers they were living with.

criticisms of pluralism: Feminists

- range of female voices in media narrow

- Media content male orientated (clearly seen in media representations of females who are objectified)

- Thornham: feminist perspectives dismissed by journalists are extreme and threatening

criticisms of pluralism

- difficult for people to decide what they want to see or hear if the media provides their only source of info

- powerless groups don't have resources to set up own media companies to communicate their points of view

- not all consumers have access to so called diversity of media

- media consumers cannot make their own choices

marxist theory

- capitalist economic system in UK is deeply unfair

- generally benefits minority, capitalist class, at expense of majority, especially working class

- the way capitalism is organized results in inequalities in wealth and income

marxists - the role of ideology

- capitalist class uses ideology to make sure working class accepts capitalism and doesn't threaten its stability

- mass media a societal institution that transmits and controls masses through this ideology

- there is a dominant ideology, that is akin to dominant class - bourgeois

marxists - the role of ideology

- media controlled and owned by very small group of people (concentrated)

- allows for very narrow range of media material to be broadcasted

- owners of media (media moguls, members of the Bourgeois) directly control and manipulate content thus audience

- profits protected and dominant ideology continues to prevail, allowing control over Proletariat

marxist instrumental theory

- media content biased and often attacks/ ignores ideas from groups that seem to threaten/ criticize interests of dominant class, ensuring the status quo within society

marxist instrumental theory: Milliband

- media a tool used by the dominant group (white, male and middle class) to control the masses and convince them widespread inequalities inevitable within capitalist society

- control also economically imposed on media's workforce as have little choice in work and must produce what their bosses want so they keep their jobs

marxist instrumental theory: Milliband

- media owners shape and manipulate how people think about world they live in e.g. rarely inform public about why people live in poverty or, represent poor as responsible for their situation

marxist instrumental theory

- media representations of ethnic minorities portray them as criminals and extremists to divide and rule working class.

- Castles and Kosack: suits capitalist class for white working-class people to view ethnic minorities as threat as distracts them from real cause of inequality (organization of capitalist system)

marxist instrumental theory: Marcuse - Frankfurt School

- media owners play key role in helping to control working class through 'bread and circuses' approach

- deliberately make sure media output mainly entertainment orientated so people kept happy and unaware of poverty and exploitation

- 'bread and circuses': superficial entertainment used to satisfy people so they are distracted from issues

marxist instrumental theory

- media happy to transmit ruling-class ideology through media as owners part of ruling class and have interest in it not being criticized/ dismantled

- last thing they want is equality, as less wealth for them

marxist instrumental theory: Tunstall and Palmer

- governments no longer interested in controlling activities of media owners as class interests of owners and political elite overlap

- regulatory favours: newspapers owned by media conglomerate will directly support government/ neglect to criticise government & even withhold info from public in return for governments failings to enforce media regulation or abolishing it altogether

marxist instrumental theory

- implies media owners, wealth-holders and political elite united in some sort of ideological conspiracy to manipulate people opinions

- support for Marxist ideas can be found by examining Italian media-industry: ex-Mp, Berlusconi, owned 3 TV channels which had an audience figure of 40% of Italian population, he used this to help him win 1994 election

marxist instrumental theory: Curran's timeline

- his detailed examination of British press suggests the evidence for owner interference in and manipulation of UK newspaper content strong

- suggests 4 distinct can be seen with regard to owner intervention and consequent undermining of journalistic and editorial integrity

marxist instrumental theory: Curran's timeline 1920-50

- press barons such e.g. Lord Beaverbrook, who owned express newspaper group, stated their ideological intentions

- Beaverbrook: "I run the Daily Express merely for the purpose of making propaganda with no other motive"

marxist instrumental theory: Curran's timeline 1951-74

- greater delegation by owners to editorial and journalistic authority and autonomy

- greatest era of investigative reporting by journalists into abuses of power

- although owners still insisted their newspapers supported particular political ideologies and parties

marxist instrumental theory: Curran's timeline 1974-1992

- more interventionist proprietorship

- Murdoch (business man) orientated towards what sold, as opposed to what furthered a party or ideological interest

- shifted his papers to the right as believed right wing economic policies were key to making vast profits

- dubbed 'phantom Prime Minister' during Thatcher's reign as his papers agreed with her policies

marxist instrumental theory: Curran's timeline 1997

- media ownership based on 'global conservatism' as British Newspaper groups moved into global marketplace

- his papers abandoned Tories for Blair's new labour

- wasn't because he agreed with polices, but Blair promised to lift state control that prevented cross-media ownership

- deal between 2 power holders who worked together to win an election

- changed his political loyalty, not his politics altogether

criticism of marxist instrumental theory

- doesn't explain how manipulation works in practice, only theoretically

- economic reductionists, focusing on social class

- feminists: ignores the relationship to patriarchy

- over simplify process of false-class consciousness - Gramsci instead happens in 'dual consciousness' as can see through media messages

criticism of marxist instrumental theory

- fails to see journalists see themselves as guardians of public interest and dedicate careers to exposing people abuse their power

- social media means media elite more subject to criticisms

- Curran's argument can be challenged as corporations more focused on profit, not politics

- conglomerates competing against each other, adds to complexity

- Hegemonic Marxism may provide more accurate analysis

hegemonic marxist theory

- hegemony means economic, social and cultural domination of one group over another - a minority (capital class) exercises hegemony over majority of population

hegemonic marxist theory

- media reflects the ideas of ruling class (included media owners)

- media professionals subconsciously control content media by transmitting dominate values of white, male mc media professionals who work for media organizations

- hegemony occurs when ruling class control society's institutions

- through these, subconsciously transmit ideas seen as essential to their social group

hegemonic marxist theory

- Sutton Trust found over 50% top 100 journalists in UK educated at private schools (2006-12)

hegemonic marxist theory - GUMG

- journalists and broadcasters tend to believe in 'middle-of-the-road' consensus views, generally unthreatening and appeal to majority

- so, tend to see anyone who believes in ideas outside this 'extremist' and rarely invited to contribute their opinions in newspapers/ TV