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How did WWI break out?
a Serbian nationalist assassinated Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand, the heir to the trhone of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and his wife
Austria-Hungary and Germany were in full-scale war against Russia, France, and Great Britain
underlying causes of the war
nationalism
imperialism
militarism
a combination of public and secret alliances
President Wilson’s response to outbreak of European War
declaration of U.S. neutrality
tradition started by Washington and Jefferson
called upon American people to support policy by not taking sides
Why did Wilson find it difficult to maintain a neutral course?
Seemed impossible to maintain neutrality while protecting U.S. trading rights
Allied Powers
Great Britain, France, and Russia (and later the US)
Central Powers
Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire of Turkey
Who was the first to declare a naval blockade against Germany?
Great Britain; mined the North Sea and seized ships attempting to run the blockade
Wilson protected seizure of U.S. ships as a violation of neutral nation’s right to freedom of the seas
What was Germany’s hope for challenging British power at sea?
the submarine
answered British blockade by announcing own blockade and warned that ships entering the “war zone” risked being sunk by German submarines
Lusitania Crisis
May 7, 1915, German torpedoes hit and sank a British passenger liner Lusitania
most of the passengers drowned, including 128 Americans
Wilson’s response to sinking of the Lusitania
sent a strongly worded diplomatic message warning Germany would be held to “strict accountability” if policy of sinking unarmed ships continued
Who rejected Wilson’s message about the Lusitania and why?
Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan
message was too warlike
resigned from the president’s cabinet
Arabic sinking
August 1915, 2 more Americans lost lives in German submarine attack on passenger ship, the Arabic
Wilson’s response to sinking of Arabic
demanded the German government pledge that no unarmed passenger ships be sunk without warning, allowing time for passengers to get into lifeboats
Sussex Sinking
March 1916, German torpedo struck unarmed merchant ship, the Sussex which injured several Americans
Wilson’s response to sinking of the Sussex
threatened to cut off US diplomatic relations with Germany (a step towards war)
Sussex pledge
rather than risking the US entering the war on Britain’s side, Germany backed down
Sussex pledge promised not to sink merchant or passenger ships without giving due warning
Economic changes of the war
Early 1914, the US had been in an economic recession
after the outbreak of war, the economy rebounded due to orders for war supplies form the British and the French
by 1915, US businesses had never been so prosperous
what prevented the US manufacturers from shipping supplies to Germany?
the British blockade
President Wilson did not directly favor the Allied powers, but he tolerated the British blockade while restricted the German blockade
What happened to US trade between 1914 and 1917?
trade with the Allies quadrupled while trade with Germany dwindled to a vanishing point
US loans
the Allies couldn’t purchase everything they needed, so the US government permitted US bankers (bank of J. Pierpont Morgan) to extend as much as $3 billion in loans to Britain and France
promoted US prosperity and sustained Allies’ war effort
American perception of Germany
a cruel bully whose armies were commanded by a mean-spirited autocrat, Kaiser Wilhelm
the sinking of the Lusitania also reinforced this negative view
Ethnic population in 1914
first and second generation citizens made up more than 30% of the US population
glad to be out of the fighting and strongly supported neutrality
Foreign sympathies during war
German Americans strongly identified with struggles of their “homeland”
Irish Americans, who hated Britain because of its oppressive rule of Ireland, openly backed the Central powers
Italian Americans began cheering on the Allies when Italy joined them in 1915
Overall American sympathies
Overall, most native-born citizens supported the Allies
positive relations with France since the Revolutionary War bolstered support
Americans sympathized with Britain and France because of their democratic governments
President Wilson, of Scottish-English descent, long admired the British political system
British War Propaganda
British government made sure AMerican press was well supplied with stories of German soldiers committing atrocities in Belgium and German-occupied eastern France
Foreign policy realists
believed that a German victory would change the balance of power and that the US needed a strong British navy to protect the status quo
majority of Americans remained thankful for booming economy and peace
preparedness
Eastern Republicans such as Theodore Roosevelt clamored for greater defense expenditures after the war broke out
believed that the US military was hopelessly unprepared for war
Wilson’s armed forces policy
1915: urged Congress to approve expansion of armed forces; provoked a storm of controversy among Democrats who were against military increases
National Defense Act (June 1916)
after a nationwide speaking tour, Wilson convinced Congress to pass the act
increased regular army to a force of nearly 175,00
a month later, Congress approved the construction of more than 50 warships
opposition to war
many Americans, especially in Midwest and West, were opposed to preparedness
antiwar activists: Populists, Progressives, and Socialists
Progressive leaders
peace-minded Progressive leaders were William Jennings Bryan, Jane Addams, and Jeannette Rankin
Jeannette Rankin
the first woman to be elected to Congress
Woman actively campaigned against any military buildup
Why did President Wilson win the election of 1912?
because of the split in Republican ranks between Taft conservatives and Roosevelt Progressives
Election of 1916
Wilson’s chances for reelection as a Progressive did not seem strong after Roosevelt rejoined the Republicans
Charles Evans Hughes, supreme Court Justice and former governor of New York, became presidential candidate of Republican Party
What was the Democrats campaign slogan for the election of 1916?
“He Kept Us Out of War”
peace sentiment, Wilson’s record of Progressive leadership, and Hughes’ weakness as candidate gave Wilson the victory in a close election
Wilson’s peace efforts
sent chief foreign policy adviser, Colonel Edward House of Texas to London, Paris, and Berlin to negotiate peace settlement
mission was unsuccessful
January 1917, Wilson made a speech to the Senate, declaring US commitment to hope for “peace without victory”
Unrestricted Submarine Warfare
early January 1917, German high command decided to resume unrestricted submarine warfare
believed cutting off supplies to Allies would win war before Americans could react
Wilson broke off diplomatic relations a few days later
Zimmerman Telegram
March 1, US newspapers spread news of secret offer made by Germany to Mexico
British intelligence intercepted a telegram to Mexico from German foreign minister, Arthur Zimmermann, that Mexico ally itself with Germany in return for help recovering Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona
aroused nationalist anger of Americans and convinced Wilson that Germany expected war with US
Wilson’s moral diplomacy
wanted the war to be fought for a worthy purpose: the triumph of democracy
bothered that Russia, governed by an autocratic czar, was one of the Allies
March 15, Russian revolutionaries overthrew the czar’s government and proclaimed a republic
Renewed Submarine attacks
the first few weeks of March, German submarines sank 5 unarmed US merchant ships
Declaration of War
April 2, 1917, President Wilson stood before senators and representatives and called to defend humanitarian and democratic principles
asked Congress to recognize state of war that existed between Germany and the US
condemned Germany’s submarine policy as “warfare against mankind” and declared “the world must be made safe for democracy”
April 6, majority in Congress voted for declaration of war
a few pacifists, including Robert La Follette and Jeanette Rankin voted no
What made trench warfare more deadly in the industrial age?
heavy artillery, machine guns, poison gas, tanks, and airplanes
What took Russia out of the war?
a second revolution by Bolsheviks (or Communists)
without an Eastern front to divide its forces, Germany concentrated on an all-out push to break Allied lines in France
Effect of Germany’s unrestricted submarine warfare
900,000 tons of shipping were lost in one month on Merchant ships bound for Britain
US undertook record-setting program of ship construction
implemented convoy system of armed escorts for merchant ships
Goerge M. Cohan
wrote popular song “Over there” that reflected idealism of troops and the public
American Expeditionary Force (AEF)
commanded by General John J. Pershing
first US troops to see action were used to plug weaknesses in French and British lines
AEF assumed responsibility for one segment of the Western Front
Last German Offensive
Enough US troops in place in spring 1918 to hold line against last assault by German forces
At Chateau-Thierry on the Marne River, Americans stopped the German advance and struck with successful counterattack at Belleau Wood
Allied offensive
August, September, and October: Allied offensive along Meuse River through Argonne Forest succeeded in driving exhausted German army back toward German border
Armistice Day
November 11, 1918: Germans signed an armistice in which they agreed to surrender their arms, give up much of their navy, and evacuate occupied territory
US casualties
US combat deaths totaled nearly 49,000
many more thousands died of disease, including a flu epidemic in training camps
total US fatalities in WWI: 112,432
total deaths in WWI: around 20 million (mostly civilians)
Wilson’s Fourteen Points
a detailed list of war aims, designed to address the causes of WWI and prevent a future world war
several related to specific territorial questions
called on Germany to return regions of Alsace and Lorraine to France and evacuate Belgium, Romania, and Serbia
broad principles of Fourteen Points
recognition of freedom of the seas
an end to the practice of making secret treaties
reduction of national armaments
“impartial adjustment of all colonial claims”
self-determination for various nationalities
removal of trade barriers
“a general association of nations”
peace conference
took place in Palace of Versailles outside Paris in January 1919
President Wilson became the first president to travel abroad in order to defend his Fourteen Points
the Big Four
David Lloyd George of Great Britain, Georges Clemenceau of France, and Vittorio Orland of Italy along with President Wilson met almost daily
after months of argument, Wilson agreed to compromise on most of the Fourteen points
Treaty of Versailles terms
Punish Germany by stripping them of colonies in Asia and Africa; forced to admit guilt for war, accept French occupation of Rhineland for 15 years, and pay massive reparations to Britain and France
territories once controlled by Central Powers and Russia were taken by Allies; Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Finland, and Poland granted independence; Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia established
to maintain peace, signers joined League of Nations; Article X of the League called on each nation to be ready to protect independence and integrity of other nations
Battle for Ratification
President Wilson had to win 2/3 approval of Senate for all parts of Treaty of Versailles, including League of Nations
Republican senators objected to League, especially Article X; argued that US membership might interfere with US sovereignty and cause European interference in Western Hemisphere (violation of Monroe Doctrine)
Increased Partisanship After the War
Wilson made winning Senate ratification difficult; October 1918, asked voters to support Democrats in midterm elections as act of patriotism
Republicans won solid majority in House and Senate
1919, Wilson needed Republican votes in Senate for ratification of Treaty of Versailles, but faced hostility of Senator Henry Cabot Lodge
Irreconcilable faction
could not accept US membership in the League, no matter how the covenant was worded
Reservationist faction
larger group led by Senator Henry Cabot Lodge said it could accept the League if certain reservations were added to the covenant
Wilson chose to fight the treaty as it stood rather than accept Lodge’s reservations
Wilson’s Western Tour
undertook speaking tour by train of the West in order to rally enough public support to push ratification of the League through Congress
September 25, 1919, collapsed after a speech in Colorado
returned to Washington where he suffered massive stroke from which he never recovered
Rejection of the Treaty
Senate defeated the treaty without reservations
when they came up with reservations, Wilson directed Senate allies to reject compromise, joining with Irreconcilables in defeating the treaty a second time
After Wilson left office in 1921, the US officially made peace with Germany
never ratified Versailles Treaty or joined League of Nations