study guide exam 4

Functions of the lymphatic system

Returns excess fluid to the bloodstream, helps defend against infection, and absorbs certain fats from digestion.

What are lymph vessels?

Vessels that transport lymph throughout the body.

What is lymph fluid?

A fluid containing white blood cells that travels through lymphatic vessels.

What do lymph nodes do?

Filter lymph and trap bacteria, viruses, and other foreign substances.

What is lymphedema?

Swelling caused by blockage of lymph vessels.

What are lymphocytes?

White blood cells involved in immune defense.

What are the functions of bone marrow?

Produces blood cells and many white blood cells.

What are the functions of the spleen?

Filters blood, removes old red blood cells, and helps fight infection.

What are the three types of tonsils?

Pharyngeal (adenoids), palatine, and lingual tonsils.

What is nonspecific (innate) immunity?

The body's first line of defense against pathogens.

What is specific (adaptive) immunity?

Immunity that targets specific pathogens.

What is active immunity?

Immunity produced when the body makes its own antibodies.

What is passive immunity?

Immunity received from another source of antibodies.

How does vaccination provide immunity?

By stimulating the body to produce antibodies and memory cells.

How does lymph flow through a lymph node?

Afferent vessels → lymph node → efferent vessels.

What are white blood cells?

Cells that help protect the body from infection and disease.

What are pathogens?

Disease-causing organisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites.

What are plasma cells?

Specialized B cells that produce antibodies.

What are phagocytic cells?

Cells that engulf and destroy pathogens.

What is natural immunity?

Immunity acquired through natural exposure or maternal antibody transfer.

What is artificial immunity?

Immunity acquired through vaccination or antibody administration.

What are antibodies?

Proteins that recognize and help destroy specific pathogens.

How are maternal antibodies transferred?

Through the placenta and breast milk.

What are the organs of the digestive tract?

Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus.

What is mechanical digestion?

The physical breakdown of food.

What is chemical digestion?

The chemical breakdown of food using enzymes and acids.

What are digestive enzymes?

Proteins that break food into absorbable molecules.

Where is bile produced?

In the liver.

What is the function of bile?

Emulsifies fats into smaller droplets for digestion.

What are the functions of the liver?

Produces bile, processes nutrients, and detoxifies substances.

What is the function of the gallbladder?

Stores and concentrates bile.

What do bile ducts do?

Transport bile from the liver and gallbladder to the small intestine.

What are the major regions of the stomach?

Cardia, fundus, body, and pylorus.

What is chyme?

A semi-liquid mixture of food and digestive juices.

What is the main function of the small intestine?

Nutrient absorption.

What are the main functions of the large intestine?

Water absorption and feces formation.

Where does most nutrient absorption occur?

In the small intestine.

Where does most water absorption occur?

In the large intestine.

How are feces formed?

By removal of water from indigestible material in the large intestine.

What are the divisions of the small intestine?

Duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.

What is the order of the small intestine divisions?

Duodenum → Jejunum → Ileum.

What is the pathway through the large intestine?

Cecum → Ascending colon → Transverse colon → Descending colon.

What are the major salivary glands?

Parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands.

What are the main parts of a tooth?

Crown, neck, root, enamel, dentin, and pulp.

What structures are found in the oral cavity?

Teeth, tongue, palate, uvula, and salivary gland openings.

What is the function of the uvula?

Helps prevent food from entering the nasal cavity during swallowing.

What are the functions of the respiratory system?

Gas exchange, air movement, air filtration, warming, humidification, and smell.

What structures make up the upper respiratory tract?

Nose, pharynx, and larynx.

What structures make up the lower respiratory tract?

Trachea, bronchi, and lungs.

What is respiratory mucosa?

A mucus-producing membrane lining the respiratory tract.

How is air filtered, warmed, and humidified?

By the respiratory mucosa and nasal passages.

What are the functions of the nose?

Filters, warms, humidifies air, and contains receptors for smell.

What are the divisions of the pharynx?

Nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx.

What structures are found in the larynx?

Vocal cords, thyroid cartilage, and epiglottis.

What is the function of the epiglottis?

Prevents food from entering the airway during swallowing.

What is the trachea?

The airway connecting the larynx to the bronchi.

What are the bronchi?

Air passages leading into the lungs.

What are the lungs?

Organs responsible for gas exchange.

How many lobes does the right lung have?

Three lobes.

How many lobes does the left lung have?

Two lobes.

What is pulmonary ventilation?

The movement of air into and out of the lungs.

What is inspiration?

The movement of air into the lungs.

What is expiration?

The movement of air out of the lungs.

What is external respiration?

Gas exchange between the lungs and blood.

What is internal respiration?

Gas exchange between the blood and body cells.

Where are the respiratory control centers located?

In the medulla and pons.

What does the medulla regulate?

Basic breathing rhythm.

What does the pons regulate?

Breathing rate and depth.

What is vital capacity?

The maximum amount of air exhaled after a maximum inhalation.

What is tidal volume?

The amount of air inhaled or exhaled during normal breathing.

What is inspiratory reserve volume?

Additional air that can be inhaled after a normal inhalation.

What is expiratory reserve volume?

Additional air that can be exhaled after a normal exhalation.

What is residual volume?

Air remaining in the lungs after maximum exhalation.

What are the functions of the urinary system?

Waste removal, fluid balance, electrolyte balance, blood pressure regulation, and acid-base balance.

What are the kidneys?

Organs that filter blood and produce urine.

What are the ureters?

Tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder.

What is the urinary bladder?

A muscular organ that stores urine.

What is the urethra?

A tube that carries urine out of the body.

How is urine formed?

Through filtration, reabsorption, and secretion in the nephron.

What is urine storage and elimination?

The storage of urine in the bladder and removal through urination.

What is normal bladder capacity?

Approximately 400–600 mL.

What are the characteristics of normal urine?

Clear, transparent, and pale yellow.

How does dehydration affect urine?

Urine becomes dark yellow or amber-colored.

What is oliguria?

Decreased urine output.

What urine output is considered oliguria?

Less than 400 mL/day.

What is normal urine output?

About 30 mL/hour.

What is electrolyte balance?

The regulation of minerals such as sodium and potassium.

What is fluid balance?

The maintenance of proper water levels in the body.

What is acid-base balance?

The regulation of blood pH.

How does the urinary system regulate blood pressure?

Through fluid control and renin production.

How does the urinary system remove waste?

By excreting urea, creatinine, and other waste products.

What is a nephron?

The functional unit of the kidney.

What is the glomerulus?

A capillary network where filtration occurs.

What is the Loop of Henle?

A nephron structure that concentrates urine.

What are collecting ducts?

Tubes that collect urine from nephrons and transport it to the renal pelvis.