Approaches and Research Methods in Psychology

Vocabulary flashcards focusing on psychological perspectives, research methodologies, statistical measures, and ethical principles from introductory psychology notes.

Psychodynamic Approach

A psychological perspective focusing on the influence of the unconscious mind, including dreams, childhood trauma, and hidden desires and fears, on human behavior.

Behavioral Approach

A psychological perspective that focuses on the influence of reinforcement and punishment, explaining behaviors as responses to previous interactions or experiences.

Cognitive Approach

A psychological perspective focusing on how individuals think, make decisions, solve problems, encode, process, store, and retrieve information.

Humanistic Approach

A psychological perspective focusing on the human desire to achieve self-actualization, fulfill potential, and meet needs for love and acceptance.

Social-Cultural Approach

A psychological perspective focusing on how parents, peers, cultural practices, and surrounding social environments impact behavior and thinking across situations.

Biological Approach

A psychological perspective focusing on how genes, hormones, neurotransmitters, brain regions, and physiological mechanisms combine with environment to influence behavior and mental processes.

Evolutionary Approach

A psychological perspective focusing on how the principles of natural selection and survival of the fittest influence behavior and mental processes.

Biopsychosocial Approach

A modern psychological approach that integrates biology, personality/psychological factors, and social environment to investigate behavior and mental processes.

Deductive Reasoning

A logical process starting with a general statement or hypothesis to examine specific possibilities and reach a specific logical conclusion.

Inductive Reasoning

A logical process starting with specific observations to form generalizations, making the conclusion probable but not guaranteed.

Cultural Norms

Shared standards and rules that guide behavior within a specific group, culture, or society.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to seek out information that supports an existing belief while discounting or ignoring information that disproves it.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it beforehand.

Overconfidence

The tendency to overestimate one's own knowledge, skill, or ability.

Gambler's Fallacy

The tendency to overestimate the occurrence of patterns in random data.

Illusory Correlation

The perception of a relationship between two variables where no actual relationship exists.

Quantitative Research

A research method that relies on and yields numerical data such as test scores or survey ratings.

Qualitative Research

A research method relying on in-depth, narrative analysis that cannot be directly translated into numerical data.

Descriptive Methods

Research strategies used to observe and record behavior through case studies, surveys, or naturalistic observations without manipulating variables.

Correlational Methods

Research designs used to detect naturally occurring patterns or associate different factors and variables without manipulating them.

Experimental Methods

Research strategies in which variables are manipulated to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Independent Variable

The factor in an experiment that is manipulated or controlled directly by the researcher.

Dependent Variable

The factor in an experiment that is measured or observed to evaluate the effect of the manipulated independent variable.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance to minimize preexisting differences between the groups.

Experimental Group

The group of participants in an experiment who receive the treatment or manipulated variable.

Control Group

The group of participants in an experiment who do not receive the manipulated variable, serving as a baseline for comparison.

Case Study

A descriptive technique in which one individual or small group is studied in depth to reveal universal principles.

Naturalistic Observation

A descriptive research method involving the observation and recording of behavior in naturally occurring settings without manipulation.

Survey

A descriptive research technique used to gather self-reported attitudes, opinions, or behaviors from a particular group.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical index of the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables, measured on a scale from $-1.0$ to $+1.0$ ($r$-value).

Meta-Analysis

A statistical procedure for combining and analyzing the results of multiple separate studies to reach an overall conclusion.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables.

Falsifiability

The capacity of a statement, hypothesis, or theory to be disproved through observation or experiment.

Operational Definition

A precise statement of the exact procedures or measurements used to define a research variable in a specific study.

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study with different participants or situations to see whether the basic findings extend to other circumstances.

Confounding Variables

Extraneous factors other than the independent variable that can influence the dependent variable and skew research results.

Population

The entire target group of individuals to whom the findings of a research study are intended to apply.

Representative Sample

A sample selected from a population that accurately reflects the characteristics of the larger group as a whole.

Random Selection

A process of gathering research participants where every member of a target population has an equal chance of being chosen.

Sampling Bias

A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative or skewed sample.

Convenience Sampling

A non-random sampling technique where participants are selected based on their easy accessibility to the researcher.

Generalizability

The extent to which research findings from a specific sample can be applied to broader populations or real-world contexts.

Placebo

An inactive or inert substance given to a control group in place of an active treatment.

Placebo Effect

Experimental results caused by participant expectations alone rather than by an active treatment factor.

Single-Blind Study

An experimental procedure in which participants are unaware of whether they are receiving the treatment or a placebo, but researchers know.

Double-Blind Study

An experimental procedure in which both the participants and the research staff are ignorant about who has received the treatment or the placebo.

Experimental Bias

A researcher's cognitive bias where they notice or record only outcomes that support their hypothesis while ignoring opposing evidence.

Peer Review

An evaluation process in which independent experts in the same field evaluate a researcher's findings and methodology before publication.

Likert Scale

A rating measurement system used in research to evaluate the intensity of attitudes, opinions, or perceptions.

Directionality Problem

The difficulty in determining which of two correlated variables causes changes in the other.

Third-Variable Problem

A situation in correlational research where an unobserved third variable accounts for the observed relationship between two other variables.

Social-Desirability Bias

The tendency of survey respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others.

Wording Effects

The impact that subtle changes in the phrasing or framing of questions can have on participant responses.

Informed Consent

An ethical principle requiring that research participants be told enough about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

Debriefing

The post-experimental explanation of a study given to participants, disclosing its purpose, results, and any deception used.

Confederate

An individual secretly working with an experimenter who poses as a participant in a study.

Descriptive Statistics

Numerical data used to measure, summarize, and describe characteristics of a specific dataset without drawing inferences about a broader population.

Inferential Statistics

Numerical methods used to determine the probability that findings from a sample apply to a larger population.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution of scores, computed by adding the scores and dividing by the number of scores.

Median

The middle score in a distribution when data are arranged in numerical order.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

Percentile Rank

The percentage of scores in a frequency distribution that are equal to or lower than a given score.

Standard Deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score of a distribution.

Regression Toward the Mean

The statistical tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back toward their average on subsequent tests.

Bimodal Distribution

A probability distribution that features two distinct peaks, indicating two separate modal groups in the data set.

Statistical Significance

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance, typically requiring a $p$-value where $p \thinspace \text{<=} \thinspace 0.05$.

Effect Size

A quantitative measure of the strength of a relationship between two variables.