History, Golden age of the weimar republic 1924-29 (economic, social and cultural, political, international position)

What was Gustav stresemann’s background?

• During ww1 stresemann supported German imperialist policies

• However, he understood that Germany must accept the terms of the treaty of versailles. He ideally wanted a constitutional monarchy but this was impossible due to terms of the treaty, he found that the republic would be the only way they could prevent far right and left dictatorship

• He was appointed as chancellor on the 13th of august 1923 with the ‘great coalition’. He was chancellor for 103 days until the 23rd of november 1923

• He stayed as foreign minister till his death on the 3rd of october 1929

• During being a chancellor he stablised the economy, controlled inflation and defeated putsches

What steps did Stresemann tak to solve economic issues?

• passive resistance was ended and the strikers wages were stopped, they returned to the policy of fufilment

• They issued a new currency called the rentenmark, on the 15th of november 1923 it was 1 rentenmark to 1 trillion old marks, the currency was relied upon by germany’s industrial and agricultural assets

• there was tight control of circulation which was the opposite of printing

• They renamed the rentenmark the reichsmark and fixed to gold equivilant of 30% in circulation

• The reforms were under direction of Hjalmar schacht and Hans luther

How did stresemann attempt to balance the economy?

• He cut spending by reducing salaries of civil servants, he predececer wilhelm marx sacked 300,000 civil servants

• taxes were also increased for individuals and companies

as a result, confidence in the German economy returned, well managed compaies were prospering However, weaker companies who relied on credit failed with 6000 failed companies in 1924 (more than in 1923. Those who lost their savings were not compensated

What was the political response to stresemann’s actions?

left

• army crushed the KPD revolution in Saxony

• The spd critised the policies, they left the coaltion so stresemann had to resign as chancellor

right

• Hard action against the left diffused some threat from the right

• they were still disliked by the far right for following the policy of fufilment

Overall stresemann stabilised the situation

How could payments circulate under the dawes plan?

Set up in november 1923, stresemann asked the allies to set up a comitee to solve the reperations problem, this was called the allied reperations comitee

• the usa wanted germany to pay back reparations to france and britain so they gave germany $2.5 billion in loans

• This meant France and Britain could pay of their $2.6 billion war debts to the USA with the $2 billion paid in reparations

How was the Dawes plan better for germany? What were the reactions and benefits?

Charles Dawes a US banker and vice presidant made repayments more manageable by;

• reducing the annual amount paid to 1000 million marks this would lead to a gradual increase to 2500 million marks by 1929

• They lent 800 million marks to help invest in German industry

Reactions

• Stresemann called it an “economic armistice”

• the DNVP and NSDAP claimed it was unjust as they believed Germany should not be paying reparations either way

Benefits

• The allies realised germany had real payment issues

• the loans allowed the economy to recover and the french left the ruhr gradually from 1924 to 1925

What was the economic situation in Germany during the ‘golden age’?

“Germany is dancing on a volcano”

What was the young plan?

• The dawes plan was temporary “economic armistice”

• an international commitee was set up by owen young, it was agreed upon in 1929, Paris and Germany had to pay reperations untill 1988

• The total was reduced to £1.8 billion

• this was the sole responsibility of the German government

• In return Britain and France left the Rhineland

What were the political reactions to the Young plan?

• The right wing nationalists were outraged

• Alfred Hugenburg from the DNVP launched a nationalist campaign which united other conservative parties e.g NSDAP

• They demanded a referendum for the ‘freedom law’ which called for the rejection of article 231 ‘war guilt’ and would give politicians who followed fufilment a trial fro treason, they would also take over land taken from the treaty

• the petition for the new law reached 4 million signatures and was defeated in the Reichstag, the referendum defeated the law with only 13.4% in favour

• The campaign was funded by Hugenburg’s wealth and widely voiced by Hitler

Who economically gained during the years 1924-29?

• The new currency and Dawes plan, helped improve Germany’s financial situation to a large extent

• The inflation rate was close to zero

• Advanced growth in some sectors e.g chemical industry, cars and aeroplanes

• Infrustructure building projects e.g schools, roads and houses (200,000 new homes built in 1926)

• Decline in the number of strikes each year

• Overall improvements in living standards for working classes, wages grew in value every year, 12% in 1928

Who economically made losses during the years 1924-29?

• The economy shrank in 1928 and 1929

• Investment in new machinary and factories fell by 1929

• unsteady growth overall in industry, total output only back to 1913 levels by 1929

• Unemployment was still high, it peaked in 1926 at 3 million

• public spending cuts

• the mining sector struggled 200,000 miners were lost

• farmers gained little, there was a worldwide depression in food prices and losses from hyperinflation, by 1928 there was an agricultural depression

What were the causes of social and cultural change?

What were the impacts of the change?

Causes

• There was a desire to enjoy life after the horrors and hardship of war

• New influence of international cultural movements

• In Germany the ‘weimar’ constitution gave citizens more rights, freedoms, oppurtunity and equality. The wartime censorship had been removed

Impacts

• Many embraced change with enthusiasm and innovation

• However, many others feared the change as ‘traditional values’ would be missed

• there was conflict between tradition and modernity

How was there social welfare reform?

social welfare

• in 1924, the public assistance system was modernised which helped the poor and destitute

• In 1925, the state accident system was made generating payments if an indivdual was injured at work or with occupational disease

• In 1927, the national unemployment insurance system was set up giving benefits to the unemployed

• Problems arose as the schemes were very expensive and the govenrment were already paying for 800,000 disabled war veterans, 360,000 widows and 900,000 war orphans

How did living standards change?

• wealthier Germans were alienated by higher taxes

• claimants were alienated by;

  • introduction of means tests

  • delays in payments

  • use of ‘snoopers’ to check on claiments

• Overall living standards improved

  • Unions negotiated wage increases

  • welfare benefits reduced abject poverty

  • business owners gained from commercial enviroment and trade

How did woman’s education change or stay the same?

change

• influential woman like Elsa Hermann said “modern woman refuses to lead the life of a lady and housewife”

• Government reforms to try and have equal pay

• Many woman entered paid employment to replace 2 million men killed in WW1

• By 1925 36% of the workforce were woman

• 100,000 woman were teachers and 3000 doctors

Continuity

• ‘demoblisation’ laws were out into place to replace woman with men who served in the war

• in many occupations woman were forced to leave when they got married

• woman were still paid less than men overall

• employed woman were attacked as being ‘double earners’ removing oppurtunities for males to work, conservative campaigns wanted to remove married woman from employment

How did woman’s sexual freedom change or stay the same?

Change

• Birth rate declined and birth control was widely available

• Divorce rates increased

• Rise in number of abortion, by 1930, there was an estimated 1 million a year

Continuity

• Abortion was a criminal offence and often preformed by unqualified people, 10,000-12,000 woman died a year

• Decline in birth rates was attacked by conservative press

• catholic and protestant churches opposed sexual liberation

How did woman’s political involvment in public life change or stay the same?

Change

• Woman and men had equal voting rights

• in 1919, 41 woman were elected to the reichstag; the number of woman did fall however in further elections

• woman were active in local cities

• clara zetkin, kpd member of the reichstag leading a campaign of womans rights, she wanted a socialist uprising

Continuity

• No female representation in the reichstrat

• No female cabinet members

• No political party had a female leader

• only kpd tried to campagin for womans rights but was the less appealing party for woman

• Z gained the most votes from woman and in rural areas DNVP and DVP

How did youth employment and oppurtunity change?

• Boys that were not selected for gymnasium schools were expected to enter employment at 14, however there was a shortage of oppurtunities

• in 1925-26 17% of unenployment was in the age group 14-21, this was partly due to a baby boom in 1900-1910

• youth were breaking free of religon, family and school

• youth cliques in hamburg

• Benefit systems and day centres to help young people attain skills

How did education change or stay the same?

Change

• a comprehensive, non secretarian elementry schools

Continuity

• influence of churches remained

• gymnasium retained entrance exams

How did youth groups change or stay the same?

Change

• youth cliques

• new church youth groups, catholic new germany 1919

• political youth groups e.g 1925, young communist league, 1928 Hitler youth, 13k by 1929

Continuity

• Wandervogal, 1896, a nationalist group which romantized the past and nature e.g forests, swimming, camping

• church youth groups

How did Jews in politics, public life and the press change or stay the same?

change

• Theodor Wolff and Walter Rathenau were founding members of the DDP in 1918

Continuity

• prominent role in universities, publishing (Berliner Tageblatt and Frankfurter zeitung), music, theatre and cinema

• 9/38 Nobel prizes handed to Jews e.g Einstein

• Rosa Luxembourg, Kurt esner and Hugo Hasse were all members of the USPD

How did the role of Jews in the economy change or stay the same?

Change

• Role of Jews in banking declined e.g banks owned by Jews were 18% of the sector which was a smaller proportion to pre 1914

Continuity

• prominent role in business and banking

• 50% of cloth trade was Jewish owned

• Rothschilds, Mendelssohns and bleichröders own 50% of private banks

How did Jewish assimilation and anti-semitism change or stay the same?

Change

• 1918-24 there was backlash against perceived threat of the Jews e.g Spartacists

Continuity

• they were well educated and made up half a million citizens

How were nightclubs and Cabaret in Berlin an example of cultural change?

• there was greater cultural and personal freedom in the Weimar Republic which was epitomised in the 1920s nightlife

• Berlin was renound for cabaret

• One club called the eldorado was described by German composer Freidrich Holloener as the “supermarket of eroticism”

• American jazz music was popular and comedians preformed in clubs making fun on politicians and authoritarian rule

• Many older traditional Germans hated the Berlin scene and loss of traditional values and blamed the Weimar Republic for lack of censorship, felt German society was destroyed and morally disintegrated

How is Art an example of cultural change in Weimar Germany?

• predominant art at the time was expressionism

• This originated in Germany in the early 20th century and associated with artists like Franz Marc and George Grosz

• Work should express meaning and emotion

• Abstract and vivid

• Not harsh drawings

George Grosz grew up in Poland and attended a weekly drawing class held by a local painter called grot, Between 1909-11 he studied at Dresden academy of fine arts

• He was against nationalism so he ‘degerminised’ his name

How was music and example of cultural change in Weimar Germany?

Expressionism influenced German classical composers among the most innovative was hindenmith

How was literature and example of cultural change?

Expressionism had influence on literature at the time, often they placed focus on internal mental state and a common theme was going against parental authority

Thomas Mann was an example in 1929 he won the nobel prize for literature laureate, his novels included themes like the psychology of the artistan intellectual, he modernised German and Biblical stories, famous works like ‘Little Herr freichmann’

Mann strongly denounced nazism and in 1936 his citizenship was revoked

How was architecture and other design trends n example of cultural change?

‘Bauhaus movement’ the Bauhaus was set up in Dessau and was partly responsible for the develoment of modern art and design in Germany. Primarily an architecture school

Students were told to break the barriers between art and technology and use materials like steel and glass in their work

• Set up by William Gropius in 1919,

• The school closed after fiancial cuts in 1933

• Many Bauhaus artists moved to america e.g Gropius taught at Harvard

The new movements were called ‘communist’ and ‘degenerate’

How was theatre and example of cultural change?

Expressionism also crossed over and influenced theatre, experimental theatre attacked capitalism and politics

Bertolt Brecht

• first successful with plays in Munich, he moved to Berlin in 1924 because of this, began a lifelong collab with composer Hannes Einsler

• Looked into ideas about socialism and communism

• He eventually left Germany and moved to Scandanavia and then the US

• play ‘man equals man’ which explored war and identity

Conservatives viewed theatre in a negative light and caused uproar

How was film and example of cultural change?

Films often discussed issues in Weimar Germany like economic crisis

Fritz lang the director

• was raised catholic and had catholic themes in his films as he believed religion taught ethics

• He began to film a movie called ‘the testement of Dr mabuse’ but this was put to stop by Hitler as it could’ve incitied the public to disrupt nazi rule

• He was worried about the nazi regime due to his Jewish heritage but his wife became a nazi sympathiser in the late 1930s leading to their divorce

Movies

• Nosferatu 1922, based on dracula and was a famous horror film of it’s time

• Metropolis 1927, social commentry of class

How did the two reichstag elections play out in 1924?

• Two elections occured in May and December 1924

• There was increased support for pro-republican parties like the SPD, DDP, Z and the DVP and there was a fall in support for extremist parties

• The fall in support was due to the return of economic stability, the nazi vote fell from 6.5% to 3%. The KPD vote went from 12% to 9%,the DNVP joined a coalition

Between 1924 and 1928 there were 6 coalitions, this meant it was difficult to agree on policy, caused by a PR. However, 1/3rd of the electorate was still hosile to democracy

What coalitions took place from 1924-1928?

Marx’s 1st and 2nd government

Luther’s government

Mullers’s government

1) Marx’s government, November 1923 - January 1925, he was from the Z party. the coalition was made of Z, DVP, DDP, BVP

2) Luther’s government, January 1925 - May 1926, he was a technocrat, 2 coalitions in his government, Z, DDP, DVP, BVP, DNVP, eventually the DNVP left

3) Marx 2nd government, May 1926 - June 1928, 1st coalition, Z, DVP, DDP, BVP. 2nd coalition had the DDP replaced with the DNVP

4) Muller, June 1928 - March 1930, he was a member of the SPD and his coalition as made of SPD, Z, DDP, DVP, BVP

What was Reichsbanner schwarz-rot-gold?

Organisation was founded in February 1924 by members of the SPD, DDP, Z parties

Their aims were to defend parliamentry democracy against extremism from the left and right, teaches the population of the new republic and the hnour flag and constitution

The first chairman Otto Horsing descibed the task as a “struggle against the swastica and the soviet star”

• 3 million members by 1932

What are the problems of coalitions?

It is tricky to make a workable combination of parties, some parties would not work with each other like the SPD and DNVP and centrist parties don’t have sufficient seats to form a government without a larger party

• It is tricky to decide on policy, this could be due to budget and foreign policy

How did HIndenburg become president of the Weimar republic?

• Ebert, the first president of the republic died in Feb 1925

• This led to a national election for his successor

• This winner needed at least 50% of the vote the first round, if no winner had achieved this the second round opened up oppurtunities for different candidates, the candidate with the most vote wins

• In the first round no one reached 50% the main contenders where; Jarres DVP and DNVP with 38%, Marx from Z with 14.5%, Braun from the SPD with 29%

• The second round was won by Hindenburg at 48% from DVP, DNVP and BVP, this was followed by marx who made up Z, SPD and DDP with 45%, the KPD candidate Thalmann earnt 6%

Who was Paul Von Hindenburg?

• He represented a symbol of the past, he was known as the saviour during the battle of Tannenberg in WW1, from 1916-18 he was the chief army of staff, he was authoritrian and created a virtual military dictatorship in WW1

• Ersatzkaiser - substitute emperor, he didn’t step away from democracy (yet) and called for unity, he initially followed the consitution

• His pressence temporarily reconciled the DNVP to the republic and parlimentry democracy

What were the attitudes of the elite towards the republic?

• The army, civil servants and judiciary were hostile to parliamentary democracy, the republic was born out of ‘betrayal’ of fatherland ‘Der dolchstoss’.

• Hostility strengthened by the T of V and there was political and economic crisis of 1919-23

• The election of Hindenburg as president temporarily reconciled the elite to the republic because they thought Hindenburg would create authoritarian government

What were the attitudes of the industrial workers towards the republic?

• the republic didn’t deliver it’s promises; greater equality and social justice

• Crushing revolts by army/police on orders of democratic politicians like spar tickets and saxony made them thing parliamentary democracy was failing

What were the middle class attitudes towards the republic?

• Support for moderate parties were vital for the republics survival

• Difficult to generate as it is a diverse group; with wealth, religion, political loyalty

• Some of the middle classes prospered so supported republic. Lower middle (mittlestand) suffered decline in income (hyperinflation) and struggled to recover and defend interests

• They welcomed economic stability under stresemann and political stability under Hindenburg but resentment kept

When was the first and second round of voting for the presidential elections?

• The first took place on the 29th of March 1925

• Second round of voting took place on the 26th of April 1925

What was the reaction of the Hindenburg election?

• Right wing elite viewed his election as start of restoration of old order (kaiser reich) Hindenburg was Ersatzkaiser a step away from democracy

• The middle class saw Hindenburg as the cause for political stability during this period

• the left wing expected that Hindenburg would restore the monarchy

What sort of approach did Stresemann take to improve Germany?

• A nationalist approach, build strength by using force

• A pragmatic approach, Stresemann wanted to cooperate with the allies and also attempt to meet the terms of the treaty of versailles through fufilment enfulingspoltik

• He wanted to remove troops from the Rhineland and demonstrate the terms were unmanagable

• all of this was to create trust

How did Stresemann try to improve the terms of repararations?

They were able to succesfully improve the economy through the Dawes plan, this meant that German infrustructure could be improved as well as the payment of reparations to France and Britain

• stresemanns priority was to get france to know Germany’s intentions were peaceful, this could possibly allow revison of the treaty

What was the Locarno pact of 1925?

Western European powers met at Germany’s suggestion with stresemanns aims to;

• Restore Germany’s international standing

• To address French fears of German economic recovery

• To prevent hostile alliance of Britain and France

An agreement was reached with; Germany, GBR, FRA, US and ITA

• They agreed on western borders drawn up in 1919

• Germany surrendered claim for Alsace-Lorriane

• Germany agreed to kept the Rhineland demilitarised

• from this Britain and Italy agreed to help other allies if one of them invaded another

What came as a result from the Locarno pact?

• It was agreed that any future disputes would be referred to the league of nations - wilson’s idea

• Normalised relations especially between france and Germany, reparation reform and trade was improved

• ended German isolation in 1926 but there was no gurentee within eastern borders

What were the sucesses and failures of the Locarno pact?

• France felt security as there was guarantee of British support

• Germany had prevented a repeat of the invasion of the Ruhr and and created peace by securing the western borders

• Germany found a grey area in regards to it’s eastern borders, it found the eastern borders were not fully recognised by Germany and giving them an oppurtunity to make a case to change them

• Stresemann’s personal relationship with French chancellor Aristide Briand was improved and they won joint nobel peace prize in 1926

However, the locarno pact was seen as a surrender from the DNVP and NSDAP

How did Germany join the league of nations and how was it successful?

Germany joined the League in 1926 and stability was brought

• Germany was given Veto powers (allowing them to stop plans going forward) so they had a lot of control

• they could participate in military action against agressors

• overall strengthened Germany

What were Russian and German relations like, how were they similar?

• In 1922 Russia became the USSR after revolution in 1917, it was now a communist state whilst Germany became a democratic republic

• Russia’s war effort crumbled in 1917 leading to the bitter Brest-Litovsk treaty

• They were similar both in chaos, resenting the creation of Poland containing large portions of ex-german and russian minorities

• outcasted and isolated after ww1

What was the treaty of Rapallo in 1922?

• The treaty restored diplomatic relations between Germany and Russia, they restored trade between the two countries and economic cooperation

• All war claims for compensation were dropped and Russia allowed Germany to develop weapons and train piolets in their territory

• They had a joint key issue of Poland, they recognised mutual hostility to Poland

• The French were concerned by this, and noted Germany’s refusal of eastern borders

What was the treaty of Berlin in 1926?

The treaty acted as a renewal of the treaty of Rapallo, this maintained military and economic cooperation with the USSR and an agreement that if Russia attacked Poland, Germany would remain neutral

• This treaty was successful as it put pressure on the western allies to improve relations with Germany, ‘balance of power’ to strengthen against Britain, France and the USA

What was the Kellogg-Briand pact?

In 1928 the USA and France agreed that they would renounce war by solving disputes, it was mainly a symbolic pact, 10 years after WW1. Many other countries agreed including Germany

What was the Young plan of 1929?

It was an agreement between Germany, USA, GB and FRA to;

• Lower the reperations total by 2/3rds (£1.85 billion)

• It expanded the Dawes plan to $2.5 billion

• A referendum was held in Germany to go ahead with the Young plan, only 14% said no

This did re-spark the ‘der dolchstoss’ idea which Hitler spread

The Harzburg front held anti-republic rallies but for the most part germans supported the plan

• It was successful up until the great depression, final allied troops left Germany in June 1930

How did Disarmament take place, how did Germany get around this?

• Under the treaty of Versailles, Germany had to make cuts like limiting the army to 100,000 men

• This was moitered by the inter-allied control commision, Germany seemed to be disarming like taking down fortifications in the Rhineland

• However, Germany found ways to get around the terms of the treaty;

  • the treaty of rapallo was able to train piolets and allow weapon development

  • spain allowed Germany to build submarines and sweden allowed Germany to build tanks

  • Short, intensive military training would take place to have a large reserve army