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What was Gustav stresemann’s background?
During ww1 stresemann supported German imperialist policies
However, he understood that Germany must accept the terms of the treaty of versailles. He ideally wanted a constitutional monarchy but this was impossible due to terms of the treaty, he found that the republic would be the only way they could prevent far right and left dictatorship
He was appointed as chancellor on the 13th of august 1923 with the ‘great coalition’. He was chancellor for 103 days until the 23rd of november 1923
He stayed as foreign minister till his death on the 3rd of october 1929
During being a chancellor he stablised the economy, controlled inflation and defeated putsches
What steps did Stresemann tak to solve economic issues?
passive resistance was ended and the strikers wages were stopped, they returned to the policy of fufilment
They issued a new currency called the rentenmark, on the 15th of november 1923 it was 1 rentenmark to 1 trillion old marks, the currency was relied upon by germany’s industrial and agricultural assets
there was tight control of circulation which was the opposite of printing
They renamed the rentenmark the reichsmark and fixed to gold equivilant of 30% in circulation
The reforms were under direction of Hjalmar schacht and Hans luther
How did stresemann attempt to balance the economy?
He cut spending by reducing salaries of civil servants, he predececer wilhelm marx sacked 300,000 civil servants
taxes were also increased for individuals and companies
as a result, confidence in the German economy returned, well managed compaies were prospering However, weaker companies who relied on credit failed with 6000 failed companies in 1924 (more than in 1923. Those who lost their savings were not compensated
What was the political response to stresemann’s actions?
left
army crushed the KPD revolution in Saxony
The spd critised the policies, they left the coaltion so stresemann had to resign as chancellor
right
Hard action against the left diffused some threat from the right
they were still disliked by the far right for following the policy of fufilment
Overall stresemann stabilised the situation
How could payments circulate under the dawes plan?
Set up in november 1923, stresemann asked the allies to set up a comitee to solve the reperations problem, this was called the allied reperations comitee
the usa wanted germany to pay back reparations to france and britain so they gave germany $2.5 billion in loans
This meant France and Britain could pay of their $2.6 billion war debts to the USA with the $2 billion paid in reparations
How was the Dawes plan better for germany? What were the reactions and benefits?
Charles Dawes a US banker and vice presidant made repayments more manageable by;
reducing the annual amount paid to 1000 million marks this would lead to a gradual increase to 2500 million marks by 1929
They lent 800 million marks to help invest in German industry
Reactions
Stresemann called it an “economic armistice”
the DNVP and NSDAP claimed it was unjust as they believed Germany should not be paying reparations either way
Benefits
The allies realised germany had real payment issues
the loans allowed the economy to recover and the french left the ruhr gradually from 1924 to 1925
What was the economic situation in Germany during the ‘golden age’?
“Germany is dancing on a volcano”
What was the young plan?
The dawes plan was temporary “economic armistice”
an international commitee was set up by owen young, it was agreed upon in 1929, Paris and Germany had to pay reperations untill 1988
The total was reduced to £1.8 billion
this was the sole responsibility of the German government
In return Britain and France left the Rhineland
What were the political reactions to the Young plan?
The right wing nationalists were outraged
Alfred Hugenburg from the DNVP launched a nationalist campaign which united other conservative parties e.g NSDAP
They demanded a referendum for the ‘freedom law’ which called for the rejection of article 231 ‘war guilt’ and would give politicians who followed fufilment a trial fro treason, they would also take over land taken from the treaty
the petition for the new law reached 4 million signatures and was defeated in the Reichstag, the referendum defeated the law with only 13.4% in favour
The campaign was funded by Hugenburg’s wealth and widely voiced by Hitler
Who economically gained during the years 1924-29?
The new currency and Dawes plan, helped improve Germany’s financial situation to a large extent
The inflation rate was close to zero
Advanced growth in some sectors e.g chemical industry, cars and aeroplanes
Infrustructure building projects e.g schools, roads and houses (200,000 new homes built in 1926)
Decline in the number of strikes each year
Overall improvements in living standards for working classes, wages grew in value every year, 12% in 1928
Who economically made losses during the years 1924-29?
The economy shrank in 1928 and 1929
Investment in new machinary and factories fell by 1929
unsteady growth overall in industry, total output only back to 1913 levels by 1929
Unemployment was still high, it peaked in 1926 at 3 million
public spending cuts
the mining sector struggled 200,000 miners were lost
farmers gained little, there was a worldwide depression in food prices and losses from hyperinflation, by 1928 there was an agricultural depression
What were the causes of social and cultural change?
What were the impacts of the change?
Causes
There was a desire to enjoy life after the horrors and hardship of war
New influence of international cultural movements
In Germany the ‘weimar’ constitution gave citizens more rights, freedoms, oppurtunity and equality. The wartime censorship had been removed
Impacts
Many embraced change with enthusiasm and innovation
However, many others feared the change as ‘traditional values’ would be missed
there was conflict between tradition and modernity
How was there social welfare reform?
social welfare
in 1924, the public assistance system was modernised which helped the poor and destitute
In 1925, the state accident system was made generating payments if an indivdual was injured at work or with occupational disease
In 1927, the national unemployment insurance system was set up giving benefits to the unemployed
Problems arose as the schemes were very expensive and the govenrment were already paying for 800,000 disabled war veterans, 360,000 widows and 900,000 war orphans
How did living standards change?
wealthier Germans were alienated by higher taxes
claimants were alienated by;
introduction of means tests
delays in payments
use of ‘snoopers’ to check on claiments
Overall living standards improved
Unions negotiated wage increases
welfare benefits reduced abject poverty
business owners gained from commercial enviroment and trade
How did woman’s education change or stay the same?
change
influential woman like Elsa Hermann said “modern woman refuses to lead the life of a lady and housewife”
Government reforms to try and have equal pay
Many woman entered paid employment to replace 2 million men killed in WW1
By 1925 36% of the workforce were woman
100,000 woman were teachers and 3000 doctors
Continuity
‘demoblisation’ laws were out into place to replace woman with men who served in the war
in many occupations woman were forced to leave when they got married
woman were still paid less than men overall
employed woman were attacked as being ‘double earners’ removing oppurtunities for males to work, conservative campaigns wanted to remove married woman from employment
How did woman’s sexual freedom change or stay the same?
Change
Birth rate declined and birth control was widely available
Divorce rates increased
Rise in number of abortion, by 1930, there was an estimated 1 million a year
Continuity
Abortion was a criminal offence and often preformed by unqualified people, 10,000-12,000 woman died a year
Decline in birth rates was attacked by conservative press
catholic and protestant churches opposed sexual liberation
How did woman’s political involvment in public life change or stay the same?
Change
Woman and men had equal voting rights
in 1919, 41 woman were elected to the reichstag; the number of woman did fall however in further elections
woman were active in local cities
clara zetkin, kpd member of the reichstag leading a campaign of womans rights, she wanted a socialist uprising
Continuity
No female representation in the reichstrat
No female cabinet members
No political party had a female leader
only kpd tried to campagin for womans rights but was the less appealing party for woman
Z gained the most votes from woman and in rural areas DNVP and DVP
How did youth employment and oppurtunity change?
Boys that were not selected for gymnasium schools were expected to enter employment at 14, however there was a shortage of oppurtunities
in 1925-26 17% of unenployment was in the age group 14-21, this was partly due to a baby boom in 1900-1910
youth were breaking free of religon, family and school
youth cliques in hamburg
Benefit systems and day centres to help young people attain skills
How did education change or stay the same?
Change
a comprehensive, non secretarian elementry schools
Continuity
influence of churches remained
gymnasium retained entrance exams
How did youth groups change or stay the same?
Change
youth cliques
new church youth groups, catholic new germany 1919
political youth groups e.g 1925, young communist league, 1928 Hitler youth, 13k by 1929
Continuity
Wandervogal, 1896, a nationalist group which romantized the past and nature e.g forests, swimming, camping
church youth groups
How did Jews in politics, public life and the press change or stay the same?
change
Theodor Wolff and Walter Rathenau were founding members of the DDP in 1918
Continuity
prominent role in universities, publishing (Berliner Tageblatt and Frankfurter zeitung), music, theatre and cinema
9/38 Nobel prizes handed to Jews e.g Einstein
Rosa Luxembourg, Kurt esner and Hugo Hasse were all members of the USPD
How did the role of Jews in the economy change or stay the same?
Change
Role of Jews in banking declined e.g banks owned by Jews were 18% of the sector which was a smaller proportion to pre 1914
Continuity
prominent role in business and banking
50% of cloth trade was Jewish owned
Rothschilds, Mendelssohns and bleichröders own 50% of private banks
How did Jewish assimilation and anti-semitism change or stay the same?
Change
1918-24 there was backlash against perceived threat of the Jews e.g Spartacists
Continuity
they were well educated and made up half a million citizens
How were nightclubs and Cabaret in Berlin an example of cultural change?
there was greater cultural and personal freedom in the Weimar Republic which was epitomised in the 1920s nightlife
Berlin was renound for cabaret
One club called the eldorado was described by German composer Freidrich Holloener as the “supermarket of eroticism”
American jazz music was popular and comedians preformed in clubs making fun on politicians and authoritarian rule
Many older traditional Germans hated the Berlin scene and loss of traditional values and blamed the Weimar Republic for lack of censorship, felt German society was destroyed and morally disintegrated
How is Art an example of cultural change in Weimar Germany?
predominant art at the time was expressionism
This originated in Germany in the early 20th century and associated with artists like Franz Marc and George Grosz
Work should express meaning and emotion
Abstract and vivid
Not harsh drawings
George Grosz grew up in Poland and attended a weekly drawing class held by a local painter called grot, Between 1909-11 he studied at Dresden academy of fine arts
He was against nationalism so he ‘degerminised’ his name
How was music and example of cultural change in Weimar Germany?
Expressionism influenced German classical composers among the most innovative was hindenmith
How was literature and example of cultural change?
Expressionism had influence on literature at the time, often they placed focus on internal mental state and a common theme was going against parental authority
Thomas Mann was an example in 1929 he won the nobel prize for literature laureate, his novels included themes like the psychology of the artistan intellectual, he modernised German and Biblical stories, famous works like ‘Little Herr freichmann’
Mann strongly denounced nazism and in 1936 his citizenship was revoked
How was architecture and other design trends n example of cultural change?
‘Bauhaus movement’ the Bauhaus was set up in Dessau and was partly responsible for the develoment of modern art and design in Germany. Primarily an architecture school
Students were told to break the barriers between art and technology and use materials like steel and glass in their work
Set up by William Gropius in 1919,
The school closed after fiancial cuts in 1933
Many Bauhaus artists moved to america e.g Gropius taught at Harvard
The new movements were called ‘communist’ and ‘degenerate’
How was theatre and example of cultural change?
Expressionism also crossed over and influenced theatre, experimental theatre attacked capitalism and politics
Bertolt Brecht
first successful with plays in Munich, he moved to Berlin in 1924 because of this, began a lifelong collab with composer Hannes Einsler
Looked into ideas about socialism and communism
He eventually left Germany and moved to Scandanavia and then the US
play ‘man equals man’ which explored war and identity
Conservatives viewed theatre in a negative light and caused uproar
How was film and example of cultural change?
Films often discussed issues in Weimar Germany like economic crisis
Fritz lang the director
was raised catholic and had catholic themes in his films as he believed religion taught ethics
He began to film a movie called ‘the testement of Dr mabuse’ but this was put to stop by Hitler as it could’ve incitied the public to disrupt nazi rule
He was worried about the nazi regime due to his Jewish heritage but his wife became a nazi sympathiser in the late 1930s leading to their divorce
Movies
Nosferatu 1922, based on dracula and was a famous horror film of it’s time
Metropolis 1927, social commentry of class
How did the two reichstag elections play out in 1924?
Two elections occured in May and December 1924
There was increased support for pro-republican parties like the SPD, DDP, Z and the DVP and there was a fall in support for extremist parties
The fall in support was due to the return of economic stability, the nazi vote fell from 6.5% to 3%. The KPD vote went from 12% to 9%,the DNVP joined a coalition
Between 1924 and 1928 there were 6 coalitions, this meant it was difficult to agree on policy, caused by a PR. However, 1/3rd of the electorate was still hosile to democracy
What coalitions took place from 1924-1928?
Marx’s 1st and 2nd government
Luther’s government
Mullers’s government
1) Marx’s government, November 1923 - January 1925, he was from the Z party. the coalition was made of Z, DVP, DDP, BVP
2) Luther’s government, January 1925 - May 1926, he was a technocrat, 2 coalitions in his government, Z, DDP, DVP, BVP, DNVP, eventually the DNVP left
3) Marx 2nd government, May 1926 - June 1928, 1st coalition, Z, DVP, DDP, BVP. 2nd coalition had the DDP replaced with the DNVP
4) Muller, June 1928 - March 1930, he was a member of the SPD and his coalition as made of SPD, Z, DDP, DVP, BVP
What was Reichsbanner schwarz-rot-gold?
Organisation was founded in February 1924 by members of the SPD, DDP, Z parties
Their aims were to defend parliamentry democracy against extremism from the left and right, teaches the population of the new republic and the hnour flag and constitution
The first chairman Otto Horsing descibed the task as a “struggle against the swastica and the soviet star”
3 million members by 1932
What are the problems of coalitions?
It is tricky to make a workable combination of parties, some parties would not work with each other like the SPD and DNVP and centrist parties don’t have sufficient seats to form a government without a larger party
It is tricky to decide on policy, this could be due to budget and foreign policy
How did HIndenburg become president of the Weimar republic?
Ebert, the first president of the republic died in Feb 1925
This led to a national election for his successor
This winner needed at least 50% of the vote the first round, if no winner had achieved this the second round opened up oppurtunities for different candidates, the candidate with the most vote wins
In the first round no one reached 50% the main contenders where; Jarres DVP and DNVP with 38%, Marx from Z with 14.5%, Braun from the SPD with 29%
The second round was won by Hindenburg at 48% from DVP, DNVP and BVP, this was followed by marx who made up Z, SPD and DDP with 45%, the KPD candidate Thalmann earnt 6%
Who was Paul Von Hindenburg?
He represented a symbol of the past, he was known as the saviour during the battle of Tannenberg in WW1, from 1916-18 he was the chief army of staff, he was authoritrian and created a virtual military dictatorship in WW1
Ersatzkaiser - substitute emperor, he didn’t step away from democracy (yet) and called for unity, he initially followed the consitution
His pressence temporarily reconciled the DNVP to the republic and parlimentry democracy
What were the attitudes of the elite towards the republic?
The army, civil servants and judiciary were hostile to parliamentary democracy, the republic was born out of ‘betrayal’ of fatherland ‘Der dolchstoss’.
Hostility strengthened by the T of V and there was political and economic crisis of 1919-23
The election of Hindenburg as president temporarily reconciled the elite to the republic because they thought Hindenburg would create authoritarian government
What were the attitudes of the industrial workers towards the republic?
the republic didn’t deliver it’s promises; greater equality and social justice
Crushing revolts by army/police on orders of democratic politicians like spar tickets and saxony made them thing parliamentary democracy was failing
What were the middle class attitudes towards the republic?
Support for moderate parties were vital for the republics survival
Difficult to generate as it is a diverse group; with wealth, religion, political loyalty
Some of the middle classes prospered so supported republic. Lower middle (mittlestand) suffered decline in income (hyperinflation) and struggled to recover and defend interests
They welcomed economic stability under stresemann and political stability under Hindenburg but resentment kept
When was the first and second round of voting for the presidential elections?
The first took place on the 29th of March 1925
Second round of voting took place on the 26th of April 1925
What was the reaction of the Hindenburg election?
Right wing elite viewed his election as start of restoration of old order (kaiser reich) Hindenburg was Ersatzkaiser a step away from democracy
The middle class saw Hindenburg as the cause for political stability during this period
the left wing expected that Hindenburg would restore the monarchy
What sort of approach did Stresemann take to improve Germany?
A nationalist approach, build strength by using force
A pragmatic approach, Stresemann wanted to cooperate with the allies and also attempt to meet the terms of the treaty of versailles through fufilment enfulingspoltik
He wanted to remove troops from the Rhineland and demonstrate the terms were unmanagable
all of this was to create trust
How did Stresemann try to improve the terms of repararations?
They were able to succesfully improve the economy through the Dawes plan, this meant that German infrustructure could be improved as well as the payment of reparations to France and Britain
stresemanns priority was to get france to know Germany’s intentions were peaceful, this could possibly allow revison of the treaty
What was the Locarno pact of 1925?
Western European powers met at Germany’s suggestion with stresemanns aims to;
Restore Germany’s international standing
To address French fears of German economic recovery
To prevent hostile alliance of Britain and France
An agreement was reached with; Germany, GBR, FRA, US and ITA
They agreed on western borders drawn up in 1919
Germany surrendered claim for Alsace-Lorriane
Germany agreed to kept the Rhineland demilitarised
from this Britain and Italy agreed to help other allies if one of them invaded another
What came as a result from the Locarno pact?
It was agreed that any future disputes would be referred to the league of nations - wilson’s idea
Normalised relations especially between france and Germany, reparation reform and trade was improved
ended German isolation in 1926 but there was no gurentee within eastern borders
What were the sucesses and failures of the Locarno pact?
France felt security as there was guarantee of British support
Germany had prevented a repeat of the invasion of the Ruhr and and created peace by securing the western borders
Germany found a grey area in regards to it’s eastern borders, it found the eastern borders were not fully recognised by Germany and giving them an oppurtunity to make a case to change them
Stresemann’s personal relationship with French chancellor Aristide Briand was improved and they won joint nobel peace prize in 1926
However, the locarno pact was seen as a surrender from the DNVP and NSDAP
How did Germany join the league of nations and how was it successful?
Germany joined the League in 1926 and stability was brought
Germany was given Veto powers (allowing them to stop plans going forward) so they had a lot of control
they could participate in military action against agressors
overall strengthened Germany
What were Russian and German relations like, how were they similar?
In 1922 Russia became the USSR after revolution in 1917, it was now a communist state whilst Germany became a democratic republic
Russia’s war effort crumbled in 1917 leading to the bitter Brest-Litovsk treaty
They were similar both in chaos, resenting the creation of Poland containing large portions of ex-german and russian minorities
outcasted and isolated after ww1
What was the treaty of Rapallo in 1922?
The treaty restored diplomatic relations between Germany and Russia, they restored trade between the two countries and economic cooperation
All war claims for compensation were dropped and Russia allowed Germany to develop weapons and train piolets in their territory
They had a joint key issue of Poland, they recognised mutual hostility to Poland
The French were concerned by this, and noted Germany’s refusal of eastern borders
What was the treaty of Berlin in 1926?
The treaty acted as a renewal of the treaty of Rapallo, this maintained military and economic cooperation with the USSR and an agreement that if Russia attacked Poland, Germany would remain neutral
This treaty was successful as it put pressure on the western allies to improve relations with Germany, ‘balance of power’ to strengthen against Britain, France and the USA
What was the Kellogg-Briand pact?
In 1928 the USA and France agreed that they would renounce war by solving disputes, it was mainly a symbolic pact, 10 years after WW1. Many other countries agreed including Germany
What was the Young plan of 1929?
It was an agreement between Germany, USA, GB and FRA to;
Lower the reperations total by 2/3rds (£1.85 billion)
It expanded the Dawes plan to $2.5 billion
A referendum was held in Germany to go ahead with the Young plan, only 14% said no
This did re-spark the ‘der dolchstoss’ idea which Hitler spread
The Harzburg front held anti-republic rallies but for the most part germans supported the plan
It was successful up until the great depression, final allied troops left Germany in June 1930
How did Disarmament take place, how did Germany get around this?
Under the treaty of Versailles, Germany had to make cuts like limiting the army to 100,000 men
This was moitered by the inter-allied control commision, Germany seemed to be disarming like taking down fortifications in the Rhineland
However, Germany found ways to get around the terms of the treaty;
the treaty of rapallo was able to train piolets and allow weapon development
spain allowed Germany to build submarines and sweden allowed Germany to build tanks
Short, intensive military training would take place to have a large reserve army
