Stats and Research Exam 1

breakdown of psychology

psyche: mind

logos: knowledge or study

the scientific study of behavior (overt or directly observed) and mental processes (convert or can’t be observed)

the 5 pillars of psychology

1. biological

2. cognitive

3. developmental

4. social and personality

5. mental and physical health

biopsychology

how behavior is related to biological processes especially activities in the nervous system

behavioral neuroscience

the scientific study of how the brain, nervous system, hormones, and genes influence behavior, cognition, emotions, and mental processes

cognitive

primarily interested in thinking, memory, learning, sensation, and perception

developmental

course of human growth and development

social psychology

studies how people think, feel, and behave in social situations (influence, prejudice, relationships)

personality

traits, motivations, and individual differences

clinical psychology

diagnosis and treatment of mental health disorders (anxiety, depression, trauma)

Counseling Psychology

helps people with life challenges, stress, relationships, career issues, and emotional well being

positive psychology

the scientific study of the factors that enable individuals, groups, and communities to thrive and achieve optimal well being. Rather than focusing primarily on mental illness or psychological problems, it examines human strengths, positive emotions, resilience, and the conditions that contribute to a fulfilling life

health psychology

how psychological factors influence health, illness, stress, and lifestyle behaviors

forensic

criminal behavior and behavior related to law

educational psychology

learning processes, teaching methods, motivation, and student development

industrial-organizational psychology

psychology in the workplace-leadership, productivity, hiring, job satisfaction

sports psychology

the branch of psychology that studies how psychological factors influence athletic performance, participation in sports, and physical activity. It also examines how engaging in sports and exercise affects mental health and well being

psychology of religion

applies psychological methods to understand religious beliefs, behaviors, and experiences, exploring why people are religious and how faith impacts thoughts, feelings, and actions

animal psychology and comparative

study and compare behavior of different species, especially animals. When an animals behavior is used to derive principles that may apply to human behavior

what are stable personality traits in animals

• boldness

• aggression

• curiosity

• sociability

• exploration

*these traits influence survival, reproduction, and social dynamics across many species

Koko experiemnt

experiment to teach primates to communicate with sign language

what are the 4 goal of psychology

1. description of behaviors: naming and classifying various observable, measurable behaviors

2. explain: being able to state the causes of a behavior

3. prediction:predicting behavior accurately

4. control:altering conditions that influence behaviors

what is the purpose of the 4 goals of psychology

*negative use- to control peoples behaviors without their knowledge

• ability to analyze, evaluate, and synthesize information

• most important thing to remember in this class

theory

well-substantiated, comprehensive explanation for a set of related natural phenomena built from repeatedly tested hypotheses and supported by vast evidence, different from everyday use by signifying high confidence, not doubt, and from a law by explaining why it happens

science

method of gaining information and the process may never be complete, it’s not a set of finished truths

4 paths to factual knowledge

1. tenacity

2. authoirty

3. a priori method

4. scientific approach

tenacity

the mode of accepting knowledge because one is comfortable with it and believed it

authority

the mode of accepting knowledge because a person in a position of authority claims that something is true or valid

a priori method

the mode of accepting knowledge based on a premise that people have agreed on, followed by reasoned logical argument

scientific approach

the mode of accepting knowledge based on empirically derived data

premises of psychology as a science

1. systematic observation with a-priori hypothesis

2. empirical evidence

3. replicable and verifiable

4. testable and falsifiable hypothesis

5. use of scientific method

6. public and peer reviewed

systematic observation with a-priori hypothesis-why psych is a science

psychological phenomena are studied in a planned and organized way not casually

empirical evidence- why psych is a science

interpretations of research that are based on objective results of a project are considered data driven

replicable and verifiable- why psych is a science

when scientists can recreate a previous research study, that study is replicable and generate the same results, it is verifiable

testable and falsifiable hypothesis- why psych is a science

when scientists can reproduce a previous research study and generate the same results, it is verifiable

scientific method-why psych is a science

psychology follows steps such as

• identifying problems

• forming hypotheses

• Data collection

• analysis

• conclusion

and uses standardized tests, scales, questionnaires, and instruments

public and peer reviewed- why psych is a science

scientists make their research public, typically by making presentations at conferences or by publishing their work in journal articles or books which is first reviewed by experts in their field who revise, suggest improvement and often reject studies based on quality of research and other concerns

pseudoscience

a system of theories or assertions about the natural world that claim or appear to be scientific but that, in fact, has no connection to proper scientific methods and cannot be realistically proven (means false)

For example, astronomy is a science, but astrology is generally viewed as a Pseudoscience.

Palmistry

the ancient practice of interpreting personality and potential futures by analyzing the lines, shapes, and features of the hands, with roots in India and China, offering insights into character through elements like the major Heart, Head, and Life Lines, finger shapes, and palm mounts.

phrenology

personality traits and mental faculties could be determined by feeling the bumps and contours of a person's skull, based on the idea that specific brain areas for different functions would grow with use, creating bumps on the skull. Proposed by Gall

physiognomy

historical practice of judging a person's character or personality from their outward appearance, especially facial features

graphology

the analysis of handwriting to infer personality traits, character, and even health, examining elements like letter size, slant, pressure, and spacing, though it's widely considered a pseudoscience lacking strong scientific validation

slant (open vs. reserved), size (extroverted vs. introverted), and pressure

(emotional intensity).

• Principles: Assumes brain-handwriting connection; large letters = ambition,

small = meticulous, right slant = open, left = reserved, etc

numerology

belief in a divine or mystical relationship between numbers and life events, using calculations from your birth date and name to reveal insights into personality, strengths, weaknesses, and life purpose, functioning as a spiritual blueprint (ex: life path number)

why are these pseduo sciences popular if they have no scientific basis

1. expectation effects: positive predictions can boost optimism and performance; negative ones can hinder it, aligning with belief

2. self stereotyping: believers may internalize and act out traits associated with their sign, shaping self-perception

3. need for meaning: provides a narrative and connection to something larger than oneself, fulfilling a human need for purpose

Psychics/Parapsychology

Investigates alleged paranormal abilities (ESP, telekinesis,clairvoyance, mind-matter interaction (psychokinesis), and survival after death (near-death experiences, hauntings) but struggles to provide consistent, reproducible proof, leading most scientists to reject its claims as genuine phenomena (Joseph Banks Rhine)

barnum effect

Tendency to consider personal descriptions accurate if stated in general terms

• Always have a little something for everyone. Make sure all palm readings, horoscopes, etc. are so general that something in them will always apply to any one person!

difference between science and pseudoscience

1. Science explains using mechanisms, whereas pseudoscience lacks mechanistic explanations.

2. Science uses correlation thinking, which applies statistical methods to find patterns in nature, whereas pseudoscience uses dogmatic assertions, or resemblance thinking, which infers that things are causally related merely because they are similar.

3. Practitioners of science care about evaluating theories in relation to alternative ones, whereas practitioners of pseudoscience are oblivious to alternative theories.

4. Science uses simple theories that have broad explanatory power, whereas pseudoscience uses theories that require many extra hypotheses for particular explanations.

5. Science progresses over time by developing new theories that explain newly discovered facts, whereas pseudoscience is stagnant in doctrine and applications.

junk science

scientific data, research, or analysis considered by the person using the phrase to be spurious or fraudulent. Seems like the research has been driven by political, ideological, financial motives

characteristics of junk science

• insufficient evidence

• not peer reviewed

• vague or untestable claims

• selective results

• data manipulation

Nazi Sterilizing Study

injecting Jewish women with Formalin (kind of alcohol) to stop women from having kids (destroyed their cervix and fallopian tube)

Tuskgee Study

The Tuskgee Institute withheld treatment from black patients to study the progression of syphilis while being told they were being tested for bad blood (the patients were being tricked)

Radioactive Studies

picked populations of people that they thought were “disposable” to subject terminally ill patients to whole body radiation to see it’s affects on people

Willowbrook Hepatitis Study

children with intellectual disabilities were exposed to hepatitis virus by injection or chocolate milk mixed with fecal matter (to distinguish A and B)

the Monster Study

stuttering experiment performed on 22 orphan children where they were given random positive/negative feedback on their speech (the children who were given negative feedback retained speech problems for the rest of their lives/negative cognitive and emotional abilities)

Stanford Prison Experiment

had young people act as guards or prisoners and role play, led to physical and psychological issues (what happens when people are in ultimate power)

Little Albert

relating a white rat coming into the room to a loud sound, and Albert generalized all white objects as a rat and would cry

Learned Helplessness

the floor produced a shock which caused the dog to remain on one side of the box

Milgram’s Study

gave questions to a patient in another room and would shock them after an incorrect answer. Even after hearing screams and silence on the other side of the room they still continued (would you obey authority that goes against your consciousness)

Bystander effect

the more number of people around the more likely people expect others to step up, after the experiment there was no debriefing (knowing that they wern’’t actually harming anyone)

Harlow monkey experiment

baby monkeys wanted the cloth mother and would only go over to the mother with food only when they needed it

David Reimer Case Study

during circumcision this little boys parts got burned off so the doctor gave him female reproductive parts to look at nature vs nurture. He was given reconstructive hormone therapy. At 14 years he found out his true identity and decided to have reconstructive surgery. But ended up committing suicide at 38

Harms of these experiments

• lack of informed consent

• deception without justice or debriefing

• coercion or undue influence

• psychological harm

• breach of confidality

• invasion of privacy

• misuse of data

• withholding treatment

active vs passive deception

active- process of misinforming a research participant about some aspect of a study so the individual is not aware of the intent of the project

passive- failure to provide complete information to a research participant about some aspect of a study so that the individual is not aware of the intent

applied research

is a form of systematic inquiry involving the practical application of science

theoretical research

is a form of research that expands on theory and might or might not have any direct practical application

correlational research

defined as a relationship between two variables. The whole purpose of using correlations in research is to figure out which variables are connected without controlling them.

ex: effect of alcohol consumption on breast cancer

experimental research

An attempt by the researcher to maintain control over all factors that may affect the result of an experiment. In doing this, the researcher attempts to determine or predict what may occur

ex: A fitness instructor wants to test the effectiveness of a performance-enhancing herbal supplement on students in her exercise class.

Manipulation of Independent Variable (trait of experimental research)

The researcher actively changes or introduces a treatment/stimulus (the independent variable)

Control (trait of experimental research)

Researchers exert control over extraneous variables to isolate the effect of the independent variable, often in controlled settings (labs or structured fields)

Comparison Groups (trait of experimental research)

At least two groups are compared: a treatment group (receives the stimulus) and a control group (does not)

Random Assignment (trait of experimental research)

Participants are randomly assigned to groups to ensure groups are comparable and minimize bias, a hallmark of true experiments

Cause-and-Effect Determination (trait of experimental research)

Its primary goal is to determine if the manipulated variable causes changes in the outcome, not just if they are related

Measurable & Quantifiable Data (trait of experimental research)

Outcomes (dependent variables) are precisely observed and measured, often numerically

Replicability (trait of experimental research)

The design allows for other researchers to repeat the experiment to verify findings

Chronology (trait of experimental research)

Changes in the independent variable must occur before changes in the dependent variable

Quasi Experimental Research

shares similarities with the traditional experimental design or randomized controlled trial, but they specifically lack the element of random assignment to treatment or control.

No Random Assignment (trait of Quasi research)

The defining feature; participants aren't randomly placed into treatment and control groups, relying on pre-existing groups instead

Manipulation of IV (trait of Quasi research)

Researchers still manipulate or study an independent variable (the intervention)

Comparison Groups (trait of Quasi research)

Often uses a comparison group, but it's not a true control group (may lack pre-testing, or groups aren't equivalent)

Control by Design (trait of Quasi research)

Uses techniques like matching, statistical control, or pre-test/post-test designs to mimic experimental control.

High External Validity (trait of Quasi research)

Findings are often more generalizable to real-world settings than true experiments

Lower Internal Validity (trait of Quasi research)

Lack of randomization increases susceptibility to threats like selection bias, history, and maturation, making causal claims weaker

Observational research or field research

is a type of correlational (i.e., non-experimental)research in which a researcher observes ongoing behavior in a natural uncontrolled (non laboratory) without interfering.

ex: A research study comparing the risk of developing lung cancer between smokers and non-smokers would be a good example of an observational study.

Case Study

a process or record of research in which detailed consideration is given to the development of a particular person, group, or situation over a period of time

ex: studying the prognosis of Alzheimer’s disease in a patient

longitudinal study

is an observational research method in which data is gathered for the same subjects repeatedly over a period of time.

ex: marshmallow study on self control

Panel Study (type longitudinal study)

Studies the exact same individuals (a panel) over time, observing changes in attitudes, behaviors, or conditions.

ex: A study following the same group of 1,000 adults every five years to see how their health and income change

Cohort Study (type of longitudinal study)

Focuses on a group (cohort) that shares a common experience or characteristic (e.g., born in the same year, served in the same war)

ex: Tracking all individuals born in 1990 to see how their career paths evolve

repeated Cross-Sectional Study (type of longitudinal study)

Collects data from different samples of the same population at multiple points in time, looking for general trends

ex: Polling different random groups of voters every election cycle to see shifts in political opinion

Archival research

You use existing records and information to help you answer your research question, even though that information was gathered for other reasons.

ex: studying 1950s marriage records for demographic trends

Qualitative research

explores complex human experiences, emotions, and behaviors through non-numerical data like interviews, observations, and case studies, offering deep, contextual, and nuanced insights that quantitative methods may overlook. It is highly flexible and well-suited to understanding the "why" and "how" behind behaviors