Psychology Approaches Revision Notes Flashcards

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering key terms, theories, scanning methods, and comparative dimensions across all major psychological approaches.

Behaviourism

An approach in psychology that focuses on human behaviour that is observable, measurable, and objective, studying behaviour in the form of stimulus-response.

Classical Conditioning

A learning process introduced by Ivan Pavlov that operates on the principle of association, utilizing innate reflexes composed of stimuli and responses.

Operant Conditioning

A form of learning introduced by B.F. Skinner that emphasises the role of reinforcement, rewards, and punishment, focusing on how behaviour is influenced by its consequences.

Skinner's Box

An experimental cage containing a lever, speaker, lights, and food dispenser used by B.F. Skinner to demonstrate operant conditioning in rats.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding something desirable following a behaviour to increase the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing something undesirable following a behaviour to increase the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated.

Positive Punishment

Adding an undesirable stimulus following a behaviour to decrease the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated.

Negative Punishment

Removing a desirable stimulus following a behaviour to decrease the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated.

Continuous Reinforcement

A schedule where a reward or punishment is provided every single time an individual exhibits a particular behaviour.

Vicarious Reinforcement

Learning that occurs through observing the positive or negative consequences of another person's actions.

Fixed Intervals Schedule

A schedule of reinforcement where reinforcement is only given at a set, predetermined time interval.

Variable Intervals Schedule

A schedule of reinforcement where reinforcements are provided at unpredictable time intervals that the subject is unaware of.

Token Economy

A type of operant conditioning used in prisons to rehabilitate offenders by providing tokens for positive behaviour.

Social Learning Theory

Developed by Albert Bandura, proposing that new patterns of behaviour can be learnt by observing or imitating others in a social context.

Bobo Doll Experiment

Bandura's experiment demonstrating that children exposed to an aggressive adult model reproduced similar physical and verbal aggression towards a bobo doll.

Imitation

Copying an observed behaviour, relying on model characteristics, perceived ability to perform the action, and anticipated consequences.

Modelling

Providing an example of behaviour that can be observed and later copied by an individual.

Identification

The process where an individual is more likely to identify with and imitate a model if they perceive similarity, such as in age or sex.

Mediational Processes

Internal cognitive factors occurring between stimulus and response—Attention, Retention, Reproduction, and Motivation—that determine whether a behaviour is displayed.

Cognitive Approach

An approach in psychology focusing on how people perceive, store, manipulate, and interpret information through internal mental processes.

Schemas

Cognitive frameworks that help organize and interpret information in the brain.

Inference

The practice of making assumptions and drawing conclusions about private internal mental processes based on observable human behaviour.

Cognitive Neuroscience

The scientific study of how brain structures influence mental processes and support cognitive activities.

CT (Computerised Tomography)

An x-ray based brain scanning technique that provides an image representing a cut across the brain.

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

A brain scanning technique that passes a magnetic field over the head, causing hydrogen molecules in the brain to send waves back to generate an image.

fMRI (Functional MRI)

A brain scanning technique taking multiple scans while a patient carries out a task to observe which brain areas are activated.

PET (Positron Emission Tomography)

An invasive technique injecting a low-potency radioactive glucose substance into a patient, accumulating in active brain areas to produce a multicoloured image.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Composed of the brain and spinal cord, allowing communication between the environment and the body by passing chemical and electrical messages.

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers in the nervous system that trigger an impulse (e.g., Dopamine, responsible for drive and motivation).

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers in the nervous system that stop an impulse from firing (e.g., Serotonin, associated with mood regulation).

Genotype

The actual, unique genetic material and code present within an individual.

Phenotype

The observable physical characteristics of an individual determined by the way their genes are expressed in response to the environment.

Unconscious Mind

A region of the mind inaccessible to conscious thought that controls most everyday actions and manifests through Freudian slips.

The Id

The psychodynamic structure of personality operating in the unconscious on the pleasure principle, demanding instant gratification regardless of circumstance.

The Ego

The psychodynamic structure operating on the reality principle, mediating between the impulsive demands of the Id and societal realities.

The Superego

The psychodynamic structure representing the conscious internalisation of societal rules, determining permissible behaviour and instilling guilt.

Repression

A defense mechanism involving the unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts, desires, or traumatic impulses.

Denial

A defense mechanism involving a refusal to accept reality to avoid coping with painful feelings associated with an event.

Displacement

A defense mechanism involving the redirection of thoughts and feelings onto a neutral or safer target when expression to the original person is impossible.

Oedipus Complex

A phallic stage concept where a young male child unconsciously desires his mother and seeks to eliminate his father as a rival.

Electra Complex

A phallic stage concept where female children compete with their mother to possess their father.

Humanistic Approach

Known as the 'third force' in psychology, focusing on subjective experience, individual uniqueness, free will, and self-actualisation.

Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow's pyramid ordering basic physiological needs at the base up to self-actualisation at the top.

Conditions of Worth

Requirements or standards an individual feels they must satisfy to receive conditional positive regard and approval from others.

Client-Centred Therapy

A non-directive, empathetic therapy developed by Carl Rogers designed to enable personal growth through unconditional positive regard.

Self-Concept

The mental perception and beliefs an individual holds about who they are, closely related to self-esteem.

Ideal Self

The specific person an individual aspires to be.

Congruence

The state achieved when an individual's self-concept, ideal self, and real self align, enabling self-actualisation.

Self-Actualisation

The realization of one's full potential and the desire to become the best version of oneself.

Biological Determinism

The view that human behaviour is entirely controlled by internal biological factors such as genes, hormones, and neurotransmitters.

Environmental Determinism

The view that human behaviour is controlled by external environmental forces and stimulus-response conditioning.

Psychic Determinism

The view that human behaviour is determined by unconscious drives and early childhood experiences.

Biological Reductionism

Explaining complex behaviour by breaking it down into basic biological structures and processes.

Environmental Reductionism

Explaining behaviour by breaking it down into simple stimulus-response associations.